食品科学专业英语翻译

1.Alcoholicbeveragesareproducedfromarangeofrawmaterialsbutespeciallyfromcereals,fruitsandsugarcrops.Theyincludenon-distilledbeveragessuchasbeers,wines,ciders,andsake.Distilledbeveragessuchaswhiskyandrumareproducedfromfermentedcerealsandmolasses,respectively,whilebrandyisproducedbydistillationofwine.Otherdistilledbeverages,suchasvodkaandgin,areproducedfromneutralspiritsobtainedbydistillationoffermentedmolasses,grain,potatoorwhey.Avarietyoffortifiedwinesareproducedbyadditionofdistilledspirittowinestoraisethealcoholcontentto15-20%.Notableproductsincludesherries,PortandMadeirawines.含酒精的饮料是由一系列的原料,尤其是由谷物,水果和糖作物包括non-distilled钪的饮料,如:啤酒、葡萄酒、杯苹果酒,酒的。如威士忌蒸馏饮料、朗姆酒制造谷物和糖蜜发酵,分别站在白兰地是由蒸馏的酒。其他蒸馏饮料,如伏特加和杜松子酒,制造了中性酒精蒸馏发酵糖蜜,谷物,马铃薯或乳清。各种各样的坚固的葡萄酒生产的增加白酒酒的酒精含量,提高15-20%。显著的产品包括酿,港口和马德拉葡萄酒。2Theyeastcellenvelopecontainsaplasmamembrane,aperiplasmicspaceandacellwallconsistingmainlyofpolysaccharideswithasmallamountofpeptidematerial.Thewallcomponentisasemi-rigidbutsolutepermeablestructurewhichprovidesconsiderablycompressionalandtensilestrengthtoyeasts.Carboxylgroupsofcell-wallpeptidesconferimportantflocculatingcharacteristicsonbrewingyeasts,facilitatingpost-fermentationsolid-liquidseparation.Flocculationisthoughttoresultfromsalt-bridgeformationbetweencalciumionsandthesecell-wallcarboxylgroups.酵母细胞的细胞膜,信封里包含一个periplasmic空间和细胞壁多糖的主要组成,它含有少量的多肽物质。墙上零件结构半刚性但溶质渗透提供了大大挤压和拉伸强度的酵母。细胞壁肽组与羧基酿造酵母絮凝特性对重要,便于post-fermentation固液分离。絮凝法被认为由于salt-bridge之间形成钙离子和这些细胞壁羧基组。3Brewerʼswort,producedfrombarleymaltcontains19aminoacidsandarangeofothernutrients,Theseaminoacidsareassimilatedatdifferentratesduringfermentation.Ageneralaminoacidpermease(GAPcantransportallbasicandneutralaminoacidsexceptproline.Atlease11othermorespecificaminoscidtransportsystemsexistinyeastinyeast.Prolinepermeaseisrepressedbyotheraminoacidsandammonia.Brewerʼs麦汁,由麦芽含有19氨基酸和一系列其他营养素的吸收,这些氨基酸在发酵过程中,以不同的比率。一般氨基酸permease(缺口运输的所有基本和中性氨基酸除脯氨酸。至少11其他更特定的胺基scid运输系统存在于酵母在酵母。permease脯氨酸是被其它氨基酸和氨。4ManystrainsofS.cerevisiaecanattainethanolconcentrationsof12-14%.Interesthasdevelopedintheuseofhighalcoholtolerantyeastsinhigh-gravitybrewingprocessesandinalcoholproductionfordistillationwithaviewtoincreasingplantproductivityanddecreasingdistillationcosts,Selectedstrainsareabletoproduce18-20%alcoholalthoughfermentationrateisgenerallygreatlyreducedasethanolconcentrationincreases.GrapejuiceswithveryhighsugarconcentrationsareonlyfermentedbyosmophilicyeastssuchasSaccharomycesrouxiiandSaccharomycesbailliwhichhaveahighcapacitytofermentfructose.Plasmamembranephospholipidcompositionisimportantforethanoltolerance.Increasedethanoltoleranceisobservedwhenmembraneunsaturatedfattyacidcontentisincreased.Alcoholtolerancemaybeenhancedbysupplementingthegrowthmediumwithunsaturatedfattyacids,vitaminsandproteinsandproteins.Physiologicalfactorssuchasthemethodofsubstratefeeding,intracellularethanolaccumulation,osmoticbressureandtemperatureallcontributetoyeastethanoltolerance.Yeastglycolyticenzymeshexokinase,gluceraldehydes-3-puosphatedehydrogenaseandpyruvatedecarboxylasehavebeenshowntobesensitivetoethanolconcentration.许多株酿酒酵母乙醇的浓度可以达到12-14%。兴趣发展了在使用高的酒精宽容地进行高浓度酿造酵母在酒精生产过程和在蒸馏,以达到提高植物的生产力和降低成本,选择蒸馏可以产生菌发酵率-20%酒精虽然一般大大降低为乙醇浓度增加.Grape果汁糖浓度具有非常高的osmophilic只是酵母菌发酵型和baillirouxii型具有高容量的发酵果糖。细胞膜磷脂成分是一种重要的乙醇宽容。乙醇宽容是遵循增加膜的不饱和脂肪酸含量增加。会增强耐酒精度纯培养基与不饱和脂肪酸、维生素和蛋白质和蛋白质。等生理因素的方法、胞内乙醇积累基质料、渗透bressure和温度都有助于酵母乙醇宽容。酵母无氧乳酸脱氢酶,gluceraldehydes-3-puosphate己糖激酶和丙酮酸脱已被证实是敏感的乙醇浓度。5Foryeasts,PHvaluesbetween3and6aremostfavourableforgrowthandfermentationactivity.FermentationactivityishigherathigherPHvaluesandthereisanoticeablelaginfermentationactivityatPH3-4.PHaffectsformationofby-products.HighPHvaluesincreaseglycerolformation.ThePHofgrapemustisusuallyintherange3-3.9becauseofitshighacidcontent(5-15g/l,mainlytartaricandmalicacids.Sincemostbacteria,withtheexceptionofaceticacidandlacticacidbacteria,prefermoreneutralPHvaluesthesusceptibilityofwinemuststoinfectionisgreatlyreduced.酵母,酸碱值为6和3之间最优惠活动,为经济增长和发酵.Fermentation活动是在更高的酸碱值较高,并有一个明显的视觉滞后都在发酵活动对PH3-4。PH影响形成酸碱值增加,高洁的副产品甘油的形成。葡萄的酸度范围必须通常在3-3.9因其高酸含量(5-15g/l和苹果酸,主要信息。由于大多数细菌,除了乙酸、乳酸细菌,喜欢比较中性的价值观的易感性感染酒必须大大减少。6Fermentablesugarswhichnormallyconstitute70-80%ofthewortcarbohydratesareconvertedtoethanolduringfermentation.Theresidual20-30%carbohydrateconsistsmainlyofhigherdextrinsorlimitdextrinswhicharenotsusceptibletoattackbymaltamylaesbecauseofthepresenceofα-1,6-glycosidislinkages.Intheproductionoflowcarbohydratebeer,theselimitdextrinsmaybehydrolysedtofermentablesugarbymicrobialamyloglucosidase.Ideally,thisenzymeshouldbeincubatedwithwortpriortowortboilingsothatitisinactivatedbytheboilingprocess.Whileamyloglucosidaseisalsoeffectiveinhydrolysinglimitdextrinsduringthefermentationstage,theenzymeisnotinactivatedbysubsequentpasteurizationandmayremaininthefinalproduct.可发酵的糖分一般构成70-80%的麦汁的碳水化合物被转化成乙醇发酵过程。残余的20-30%碳水化合物的主要成分是高等dextrins或者限制dextrins不是由麦芽amylaes极易受到攻击,因为存在的情况下,6-glycosidisα-1连接。生产低碳水化合物啤酒,这些限制可能hydrolyseddextrins表达由微生物amyloglucosidase糖。理想情况下,这个酶应与前孵化麦汁煮沸的做法,这样就可杀死沸腾的过程。而在hydrolysingamyloglucosidase同样有效7Afterlageringthebeercontainsmicrobialcells,proteinaceousprecipitatesandcolloidalmatter,whichareseparatedoutbyavarietyofprocessesincludingflocculation,centrifugationandfiltration.Microbiologicalstabilityisachievedbysterilefiltrationand/orbypasteurization.TheoverallbrewingprocessissummarizedinFig.2.lagering后啤酒含有微生物细胞、蛋白质沉淀和胶体物质中分离出来,它是由多种流程,包括絮凝法、离心分离、过滤.Microbiological稳定性可通过无菌过滤和/或巴斯德杀菌法,全面总结了酿造工艺量程。8Wineismadebythefermentationofalmostanyripefruitjuiceorofextractsfromcertainvegetableproducts,suchasdandelions.Becausethesestartingmaterialscontainahighconcentrationofsugar,asmuchas15%alcoholmaybeobtainedwithcertainyeaststrains.Thegrapesusedforwineusuallyrangeinsugarcontentfrom12%to30%andinwatercontentfrom70%to85%.Theotherconstituentsingrapes,includingacidsandminerals,accountforthedifferentcolor,taste,andsometimesbouquetofvariouswines.酒是由发酵成熟的几乎所有的果汁或提取物对某些蔬菜产品,如蒲公英。因为这些原料含有高浓度的糖,多达15%的酒精会取得一定的酵母株。通常用于酒葡萄的范围内糖含量从12%降至30%,而水分含量从70%增加到85%。其他成分,包括酸葡萄和矿物质,说明不同的颜色、味道,有时束各种葡萄酒。9Assoonastheskinofthegrapeisbroken,thefermentationbegins.Commercially,thefruitiscrushedandpressedmechanically.Theresultingpressedgrapejuice,calledmust,canbefermentednaturally,asisdoneinEurope,bytheenzymaticactivityofwildyeaststhatgrowonthegrapes.IntheUnitedStates,ontheotherhand,grapesjuiceandotherfermentablesubstancesareusuallyeithersterilizedortreatedwithsulfurdioxidetopreventthegrowthofundesirablemicroorganisms.Specificyeastcultures,strainsofSaccharomycesellipsoideus,arethenintroduced,andthemixtureoffruitjuiceandmicroorganismsisaeratedinordertopromoteyeastgrowth.Anaerobicconditionsresultwhenyeastsarepresentinsufficientnumberstocarryoutthefermentation.一旦皮肤的葡萄被打破,发酵过程的开始。商业,果实粉碎和按机械式的反应。结果按葡萄汁,称为必须,可以发酵当然,作为做是在欧洲,酶活性的野生酵母生长的葡萄。在美国,另一方面,葡萄果汁和其它代谢物质治疗通常要么消毒或二氧化硫对防止不良微生物的生长。特定文化、株酵母菌,然后ellipsoideus型,并介绍了混合果汁和微生物曝气,以促进酵母菌的生长。由于厌氧条件下呈现在足额酵母进行发酵。10Thewiderangeofwinescurrentlyavailableistheresultofchangeinthebasicfermentationprocess.Mustfrombothredandwhitewinggrapesiswhiteandisusedtoproducewhitewine.Redwinesaremadebyallowingthefermentationtoproceedinthepresenceofredgrapeskins.Thealcohol,formedduringtheprocess,extractsthecoloringintothewine.Rosewinesarepreparedbylightlypressingtheskinsofpurplegrapesandallowingfermentationtooccurrapidlyinthepresenceofthegrapeskins.Certainwinesarealsodistinguishedfromothersonthebasisofsweetness.Indrywines,forexample,mostorallofthesugarismetabolizedduringfermentation.Insweetwines,fermentationsisstoppedwhilesomesugarstillremainsintheproduct.各种葡萄酒的现有的结果是改变基本发酵过程。必须从红酒和白酒翼葡萄是白色的,被用来制造的白葡萄酒。红酒的发酵是由允许继续存在的红葡萄皮。酒精,形成了在这一过程中,抽取色素在醋里。玫瑰葡萄酒准备轻轻地按紫色的葡萄皮,并允许发酵发生得很快的面前葡萄皮。一些葡萄酒也区别于其他甜蜜的基础上。在干燥的葡萄酒,举例来说,大多数或所有的糖是在发酵过程中代谢。在甜葡萄酒,而一些糖极致味道停止仍然保持产品。11Sometypesofwinesareknownforaparticularflavor,effervescence,orhigheralcoholcontent.Theseincludesparklingwinesandfortifiedwines.Sparklingwines,suchaschampagne,undergoasecondalcoholicfermentationinsidethebottleunderpressure,SugarandyeastaddedtoanalreadyfermentedproductresultsinCO2production,whichcarbonatesthewine.某些种类的葡萄酒而闻名的泡沫,一个特定的味道,或更高的酒精含量。这些包括起泡葡萄酒和坚固的葡萄酒。起泡葡萄酒,如香槟,进行第二次酒精发酵瓶内压力、糖和酵母发酵产物添加到一个已经导致二氧化碳的产生,而碳酸酒。12Sinceyeastscannotsurviveinwinesthataremorethan15%alcohol,mosttablewinescontain10%to12%.Alcoholconcentrationsofwinesmaybeincreasedthroughtheadditionofbrandyorotherspirits.SuchproductsarecalledfortifiedwinesandincludeMadeira,port,andsherry.因为无法生存的葡萄酒酵母在酒精超过15%,大多数葡萄佐餐酒含有10%至12%。的葡萄酒的酒精浓度可以增加通过增加白兰地或其他烈酒。这样的产品被称为坚固的葡萄酒,包括马德拉、港口、和雪莉酒。13Mostindustrialenzymesareproducedbymicroorganisms,thelargestgroupbeingproteolyticenzymesfrombacteriafollowedbycarbohydrases.Animalenzymesincluderennetsandpancreaticproteasesandlipases;theproteasesareusedprimarilyinleatherprocessing.Amongtheplantenzymes,papainisthelargestsingleindustrialproduct.Industrialenzymesareusuallymixturesofdifferentenzymes.Commercialproductsarestandardizedwithdiluents.大多数工业酶、微生物产生的最大群体被蛋白水解酶细菌的酶,紧随其后的是carbohydrases.Animal包括蛋白酶和脂肪酶和胰rennets;蛋白酶主要用于皮革加工。在植物酶、木瓜酶是最大的单一工业产品。工业酶混合物通常是不同的酶。商业产品标准化与稀释剂。14Bacterialα-amylasesaredividedintostandardamylasesandheat-stableamylases,dependingonthenstabilitytoheat.Standardbacterialα-amylasesfrom枯草芽孢杆菌orB.amyloliquefaciensrequirestemperaturesof70-85foroptimalactivity.Heat-stablebacterialα-amylasefrom,e.g.,地衣芽孢杆菌，hasatemperatureoptimumbetween90and105.However,thisoptimumdependsonthePH,theconcentrationofcalciumions,andthesubstrateconcentration.Atypicalreactioniscarriedoutona30%starchsuspensionatPH7and103-105for7-11mininthepresenceof70mg/lofcalcium.TheenzymeisinactivatedbyloweringthePHto3.5-4.5andthetemperatureto80-90foraperiodof5-30min.细菌α-amylases分为标准amylases和热稳定amylases然后稳定性,根据升温。从枯草芽孢杆菌细菌α-amylases标准或B.amyloliquefaciens需要温度的优化70-85活动.Heat-stable细菌α-amylase,例如,从地衣芽孢杆菌温度优化,90年和105年之间。然而,这取决于PH值,优化钙离子的浓度、底物浓度。一个典型的反应是执行30%的淀粉悬架在PH7和103-105为7-11min存在钙70毫克/升。这个酶活性降低,PH值为3.5~-4.5和温度80-905-30min的一段时期。15Proteasesandlipasesareusedincleaninganimalhides,anecessarystepinleatherproduction.Proteasesarealsousedcommercillyformeattenderizing,astheyarecapableofbreakingdownsomeofbreakingdownsomeofthetoughmeatprotein.蛋白酶和脂肪酶用于清洗兽皮,皮革生产的必要步骤。也用commercilly蛋白酶对肉类tenderizing,因为他们有能力打破一些打破一些艰难的肉类蛋白。16Varioustechniquesareusedtodeterminethenumbersandkindsofmicroorganismsandtheirproductsinfoods.Thesemethodsincludesdirectmicroscopiccountsforbothlivinganddeadcells,standardplatecounts,specificstainingprocedures,immunologicaltestsforenzymesandothermicrobialproducts,isolationandbiochemicalidentification,andstatisticaldeterminationsforlivingcells.Table1listsbacteriathatareconsideredtobeindicatorsofpotentialhumanorfecalcontaminationandalsobacteriathatareconsideredtobeindicatorsofpost-heat-processingcontamination.各种不同的技术用于确定编号和微生物及其产品在食品。这些方法包括直接显微计数都活着的和死去的细胞,标准板计数,具体染色程序、免疫学检查为酶与其它微生物的产物,分离和测定生化鉴定、数理统计对活细胞组成。表1列出细菌被认为是潜在的人类的指标或排泄物污染细菌,也被认为是post-heat-processing污染的指标。17Severalchemicaladditivesareusedtopreventmicrobialspoilageoffoods.Examplesarecitricacid,usedtojams,jellies,andsoftdrinks;themoldinhibitorsodiumpropionate,usedinbakerygoodsandprocessedcheese;andthebacterialinhibitorssodiumnitrateandsodiumnitrite,usedinthecuringofmeatandfish.ThesesubstancesareclassifiedasfoodadditivesundertheFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct,indicatingthattheyhavebeentestedandfoundsafeforhumanconsumptionbytheFoodandDrugAdministration.Thisagencyiscurrentlyreviewingallfoodadditivesastolevelsofsafetyandeffectivenessforfoodpreservation.Thelevelsofsubstancessuchasnitratesandnitritesmaybereducedconsiderablyinthenearfutureasaresultofsuchstudies.几个化工助剂用于防止微生物腐坏的食物。例子是柠檬酸,用于果酱、果冻、和软饮料,模具抑制剂,用于面包店丙酸钠产品和加工奶酪;与细菌抑制剂对亚硝酸钠和硝酸钠,用于治疗的肉和鱼。这些物质分类作为食品添加剂在食品、药品、联邦和化妆品法案,这表明他们已经测试,发现可以安全食用了美国食品及药物管理局认可。该机构正在审核所有食品添加剂以水平的安全性和有效性为食物的保存。等物质的水平的硝酸盐程度大大减少硝酸盐可能在不久的将来由于这样的研究。18Chemicalpreservativesincludebothinorganicandorganiccompounds.Thesecompoundseitherkillmicroorganismsorinhibittheirgrowth,enzymaticactivities,orreproduction.Somecompoundsarealsousedtodestroyorreducethenumberofusedintheprocessingoffoods.化学防腐剂包括无机和有机化合物。这些化合物不是杀死或抑制微生物生长、酶的活动,甚至繁殖。一些化合物也被用来破坏或降低一系列的用于加工的食物。19Likefood,waterisessentialforlife.However,watercanalsobehazardous,sinceitcancontaindiseaseagentsandpoisonousmaterials.如食物、水是生命所必需的。然而,水也可以是有害的,因为它可以包含代理和有毒材料疾病。20Lifeisnourishedbyfood,andthesubstancesinfoodonwhichlifedependsarethenutrients.Theseprovidetheenergyandbuildingmaterialsforthecountlesssubstancesthatareessentialtothegrowthandsurvivaloflivingthings.Themannerinwhichnutrientsbecomeintegralpartsofthebodyandcontributetoitsfunctionisdependentonthephysiologicandbiochemicalprocessesthatgoverntheiractions.生活是由食品和营养物质生活取决于食物的营养成分。这些提供能量和建筑材料为无数的物质,是必须的生长和生存的生物。营养的方式成为身体的组成部分,有利于其功能是依赖的生理、生化过程控制着他们的行动。21Mostofthemajornutrientsinfoodsareboundinlargemoleculesthatcannotbeabsorbedfromtheintestinebecauseoftheirsizeorbecausetheyarenotwatersoluble.Thedigestivesystemisresponsibleforthereductionoftheselargemoleculesintosmaller,readilyabsorbedunitsandtheconversionoftheinsolublemoleculesintosolubleforms.Properfunctionoftheabsorptiveandtransportmechanismsiscrucialtodeliveringtheproductsofdigestiontotheindividualcells.Derangementsofanyofthesesystemscanresultinmalnutritioninthepresenceofanadequatediet.大多数重要的营养食品捆绑在大分子,不能从小肠吸收,因为他们的大小或因为他们不是水溶性。消化系统负责减少这些大的分子分解成较小,容易被吸收的单位和的转化成可溶不溶于水的分子形式。适当吸收和运输的功能机制至关重要的消化船期的单个细胞。这些系统紊乱的任何会导致营养不良、在耶和华面前一个适当的饮食。22Nutritionmightbedefinedastheprocesswherebyweobtaintheessentialnutrientsandusethemtomakemanyothersubstancesourbodiesneed.Thisprocesswouldincludeeatinganddigestingfoodandabsorbingandusing,ormetabolizing,thenutrientsitcontains.营养可能被定义为一种过程,我们获得必需的营养物质,用它们来做许多其他物质我们的身体需要。这个过程包括饮食,食物的消化和吸收或代谢和使用过程中,营养含量。23Weneedsome50chemicalnutrientstomaintainhealth:water,carbohydrate,fat,protein,13vitamins,17minerals,severalfibersandsometraceamountsofothercomponents.Themacronutrientsarethosenutrientswemustconsumeinlargeamountstoprovideenergyforourbodies.Eachofthesenutrientscontainscarbon,hydrogen,andoxygen,whileproteinalsocontainsnitrogen,anditistheratioofcarbontohydrogentooxygenthatdeterminesthenumberofcaloriestheyprovide.Themicronutrientsarewhatweneedinrelativelysmallamounts.Allofthenutrientsexceptformineralelementsandwaterareclassifiedasorganicchemicalsbecausetheycontaintheelementcarbon.我们需要一些50化学物质以保持健康:水、碳水化合物、脂肪、蛋白质、维生素、矿物质、十七13几个纤维和一些微量的其他组件。macronutrients营养的是那些我们必须消耗大量能源,提供我们的身体。每种营养素含有碳,氢,氧,而蛋白质也含有氮,是比氢和氧碳决定消耗的卡路里数提供。我们所需要的微量元素是相对少量的营养本土人除了矿质元素和水分为有机化合物,因为它们含有碳元素构成的。24Differentnutrientsgiveusdifferentamountsofcalories,basedontheratioofcarbontohydrogentooxygentheycontain.Ingeneral,agramofproteinsuppliesuswith4calories;agramoffat,9calories;andagramofcarbohydrates4calories.Wecanseethatagivenweightoffatsuppliesuswithmorethantwicetheenergyofthesameamountofproteinorcarbohydrates.Thisiswhyfatsareconsidered"fattening".Ifwetakeinmoreenergythanwerequire,thisenergyisstoredinthebodyasfatandintimeresultsinweightgainandobesity.不同的营养给了我们不同,基于大量的热量的比例氢和氧碳他们的内容。一般说来,一个克蛋白质为我们提供4克脂肪卡路里;9卡路里,一克的碳水化合物4卡路里。我们可以看到,一个给定的脂肪重量为我们提供超过两倍的能量相同数量的蛋白质或碳水化合物。这就是为什么脂肪被认为是“增肥”。如果我们要比我们需要更多的能量,这个能量储存在体内的脂肪和及时导致体重增加和肥胖。25Itisasimpleandeasilyrememberedfactthat3500excesscalorieswillproduce1lboffat.These3500excesscaloriestypicallyaccumulatenotin1dayor2butoveraperiodoftime.Thatis,ifyouconsume500caloriesmoreperdaythanyourbodyrequires,thenin1weekyouwillgainapound.Conversely,ifyouconsume500caloriesadaylessthanwhatyourbodyneeds,youwillloseapound.Therearesomeinterestingstudiesshowingthatthesefiguresdonotholdexactly,andindeedthee