国家创新系统中的大学课件

UNIVERSITIESINNATIONAL

INNOVATIONSYSTEMS

byDAVIDC.MOWERYBHAVENN.SAMPATSchoolofpublicpolicy&managementUNIVERSITIESINNATIONAL

INNOV1OutlineIntroductionWhatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldataHowdoesuniversityresearchaffectindustrialinnovation?From“sciencepush”to“technologycommercialization”conclusionOutlineIntroduction21.IntroductionTheresearchuniversityplaysanimportantroleasasourceoffundamentalknowledgeand,occasionally,industriallyrelevanttechnologyinmodernknowledge-basedeconomies.Governmentsthroughouttheindustrializedworldhavelaunchednumerousinitiativessincethe1970stolinkuniversitiestoindustrialinnovationmoreclosely.Manyoftheseinitiativesseektospurlocaleconomicdevelopmentbasedonuniversityresearch.Scienceparks,businessincubators,seedcapital,etc.1.IntroductionTheresearchuni3Ratherthan"ivorytowers"devotedtothepursuitofknowledgeforitsownsake,agrowingnumberofindustrial-economyanddeveloping-economygovernmentsseektouseuniversitiesasinstrumentsforknowledge-basedeconomicdevelopmentandchange.Inthe"knowledge-basedeconomy",nationalsystemsofhighereducationcanbeastrategicasset,iflinkswithindustryarestrengthenedandthetransferoftechnologyenhancedandaccelerated.Ratherthan"ivorytowers"dev4UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDalsohavebeenaffectedbytighterconstraintsonpublicfundingsince1970.GrowthinpublicfundingforhighereducationhasslowedinanumberofOECDmemberstates.Facedwithincreasedcompetitionforresearchfunding,andcontinuingcostpressureswithinoperatingbudgetsduringthepasttwodecades,someuniversitieshavebecomemoreaggressiveand"entrepreneurial"inseekingnewsourcesoffunding.Bothinternalandexternal

factorsthushaveledmanynations'universitiestopromotestrongerlinkageswithindustryasameansofstrengtheningtheircontributionstoinnovationandeconomicgrowth.UniversitiesthroughouttheOE52.Whatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?thedefinitionof“nationalinnovationsystems”:theinstitutionsandactorsthataffectthecreation,development,anddiffusionofinnovations.Universitiesarewidelycitedascriticalinstitutionalactorsinnationalinnovationsystems.2.Whatfunctionsdouniversiti6UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDnowcombinethefunctionsofeducationandresearch.Thisjointproductionoftrainedpersonnelandadvancedresearchmaybemoreeffectivethanspecializationinoneortheotheractivity.Theeconomicallyimportant"outputs"ofuniversityresearchhavecomeindifferentforms:scientificandtechnologicalinformation,equipmentandinstrumentation,skillsorhumancapital,networksofscientificandtechnologicalcapabilities,prototypesfornewproductsandprocesses.UniversitiesthroughouttheOE7Oneinfluentialconceptualizationoftheroleofacademicresearchwithinnationalinnovationsystemsandeconomieswastheso-called"linearmodel"ofinnovationwidelyassociatedwithVannevarBushandhisfamous"blueprint"fortheUSpost-1945R&Dsystem,Science:TheEndlessFrontier.BusharguedforexpandedpublicfundingforbasicresearchwithinUSuniversitiesasacriticalcontributortoeconomicgrowth,andarguedthatuniversitieswerethemostappropriateinstitutionallocusforbasicresearch.Oneinfluentialconceptualizat8This"linearmodel"oftheinnovationprocessassertedthatfundingofbasicresearchwasbothnecessaryandsufficienttopromoteinnovation.Yetanotherviewoftheroleofuniversityresearchfocusesonthecontrasting"norms"ofacademicandindustrialresearch.This"linearmodel"oftheinn9Foracademicresearchers,professionalrecognitionandadvancementdependcruciallyonbeingfirsttodiscloseandpublishtheirresult.Industrialinnovation,bycontrast,reliesmoreheavilyonsecrecyandlimitationstothedisclosureofresearchresults.Thesignificanceofthese"culturaldifferences"fortheconductofresearchmayassumegreatersignificanceinthefaceofcloserlinksbetweenuniversityandindustrialresearchers.Foracademicresearchers,prof10Anotherconceptualframeworkthathasbeenappliedrecentlytodescriptionsoftheroleofacademicresearchin"post-modern"industrialsocietiesisthe"Mode2"conceptofresearch."Mode2"researchisassociatedwithamoreinterdisciplinary,"networked"innovationsystem,incontrasttotheprevioussysteminwhichmajorcorporateoracademicresearchinstitutionswerelesscloselylinkedwithotherinstitutions.Anotherconceptualframeworkt11Stillanotherconceptualframeworkforanalyzingthechangingpositionofuniversitieswithinnationalinnovationsystemsisthe"TripleHelix".thetriplehelixemphasizestheincreasedinteractionamongtheseinstitutionalactorsinindustrialeconomies'innovationsystems.Stillanotherconceptualframe12The"nationalsystems,""Mode2,"and"triplehelix"frameworksforconceptualizingtheroleoftheresearchuniversitywithintheinnovationprocessesofknowledge-basedeconomiesemphasizetheimportanceofstronglinksbetweenuniversitiesandotherinstitutionalactorsintheseeconomies.Whatislackinginalloftheseframeworks,however,isaclearsetofcriteriabywhichtoassessthestrengthofsuchlinkagesandasetofindicatorstoguidethecollectionofdata.The"nationalsystems,""Mode133.Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldata3.1ComparativeDataontheStructureofNationalSystemsThroughoutthetwentiethcentury,USuniversitiesretainedgreatautonomyintheiradministrativepolicies.

Rosenberg(1999)andBen-David(1968)arguethatthislackofcentralcontrolforcedAmericanuniversitiestobemore"entrepreneurial"andtheirresearchandcurriculatobemoreresponsivetochangingsocio-economicdemandsthantheirEuropeancounterparts.3.Theroleofuniversitiesin14EnrollmentdataindicatethattheUSsystemenrolledalargerfractionofthe18-22-year-oldpopulationthanthoseofanyEuropeannationsthroughoutthe1900-1945period.ThesecontrastsinenrollmentratesarereflectedinenduringdifferencesbetweentheUnitedStatesandEuropeannationsinthesharesoftheirpopulationswithuniversityeducation.However,thelargeoutputofuniversitydegreeholdersintheUnitedStatesincludesasignificantlysmallershareofnaturalscienceandengineeringdegreeholders.Enrollmentdataindicatethat15ThelimiteddataontheroleofnationalhighereducationsystemsasR&Dperformershighlightothercross-nationalcontrasts,includingdifferencesintheirsignificancewithinthe

overallnationalR&Denterprise,theirscale,theirrolesasemployersofresearchers,andtheirrelationshipswithindustry.Thelimiteddataontheroleo16Cross-nationaldatahighlightingdifferencesinthe"divisionoflabor"betweenuniversitiesandgovernmentlaboratoriesinbasicresearchindicatethatthehighereducationsector'sshareofbasicresearchperformanceissimilarinmostWesternEuropeaneconomiesandtheUnitedStates.ButakeydifferencebetweentheUnitedStatesandmostEuropeancountriesforwhichdataareavailableisthatarelativelylowshareofbasicresearchoutsidetheacademicsectorintheUnitedStatesisperformedbythegovernment,andarelativelyhighsharebyindustry.Cross-nationaldatahighlighti17AlthoughtheUShighereducationsystemislargerinabsolutetermsthanthoseofotherOECDmemberstates,USuniversities'performanceofR&DinfactaccountsforasmallershareofGDPthanistrueofSweden,France,Canada,theNetherlands,andNorway.AlthoughtheUShighereducati18Comparisonoftheshareof"employedresearchers"invariousnations'R&DsystemsthatworkinuniversitiesrevealsthattheUnitedStatesandJapanrankverylow,reflectingthefactthatamuchhighershareofresearchersinbothnationsareemployedbyindustryratherthanhighereducation.In1997,thelastyearforwhichreasonablycompletedataareavailable,82.5percentofresearcherswereemployedbyindustryintheUnitedStates.Comparisonoftheshareof"em19国家创新系统中的大学课件20OtherqualitativedatafromtheOECD2002studyof"science-industryrelationships“comparethelabormobilityandother"networkrelationships“linkinguniversitiesandindustry.Theannualflowofuniversityresearcherstoindustrialemployment,anotherpotentiallyimportantchannelforknowledgeexchange,issignificantlyhigherthantheEUaverageinBelgium,Finland,Germany,Sweden,theUK,andtheUnitedStates.Otherqualitativedatafromth21Althoughuniversitiesservesimilarfunctionsinmostindustrialeconomies,itsuggestthattheirimportanceintrainingscientistsandengineersandinresearchperformancediffersconsiderablyamongOECDmembernations.Thesedifferencesreflectcross-nationaldifferencesinindustrystructure,especiallythe"high-technology"industriesaselectronicsorinformationtechnologythatarehighlyresearch-intensiveandrelyheavilyonprivate-sectorsourcesforR&Dfinance.Althoughuniversitiesservesi223.2RecentTrendsinUniversity-IndustryLinkagesLongitudinaldatarevealanincreaseinco-authorshipbetweenuniversityandindustryresearchersinmanyofthesenations.thisevidenceonincreasedco-authorshipmayindicatesomegrowth,ratherthandecline,intheroleofuniversitiesascentersforknowledgeproductionwithinnationalinnovationsystems3.2RecentTrendsinUniversity23the1980swerecharacterizedbycutsinUKcentralgovernmentspendingonhighereducation,andthe1990swereaperiodofmoreaggressivegovernmentalpromotionofuniversity-industrycollaborationandtechnologytransfer.Inotherwords,thegrowthinco-authorshipmeasuredbythesescholarsappearstohaveoccurredwithoutanyspecificencouragement(beyondfundingcuts)fromgovernmentpolicy.Overall,thesestudiespresentarichdescriptiveandarelativelyweakexplanatoryanalysisofanimportanttypeofuniversity-industrycollaboration,inasmuchastheyprovidelittleexplanationfortrendsorcross-nationaldifferences.the1980swerecharacterizedb244.Howdoesuniversityresearchaffectindustrialinnovation?ThequantitativeindicatorsdiscussedintheprevioussectionprovidesomeinformationonthestructureofuniversitieswithintheOECDandtheirlinkswithnationalinnovationsystems.Butthesedatashedverylittlelightonthecharacteristicsoftheknowledgeflowsbetweenuniversityresearchandtheindustrialinnovationprocess.Allofthesestudiesemphasizethesignificanceofinterindustrydifferencesintherelationshipbetweenuniversityandindustrialinnovation.4.Howdoesuniversityresearch25Universityresearchcontributedtotechnologicaladvancesbyenhancingknowledgeofthefundamentalphysicsandchemistryunderlyingmanufacturingprocessesandproductinnovation,anareainwhichtrainingofscientistsandengineersfiguredprominently,andexperimentaltechniques.Virtuallyallofthefieldsofuniversityresearchthatwereratedas"important"or"veryimportant"fortheirinnovativeactivitiesbysurveyrespondentsinbothstudieswererelatedtoengineeringorappliedsciencesUniversityresearchcontribute26Virtuallyallofthefieldsofuniversityresearchthatwereratedas"important"or"veryimportant"fortheirinnovativeactivitiesbysurveyrespondentsinbothstudieswererelatedtoengineeringorappliedsciences.Instead,theseresultsreflectthefactthattheeffectsonindustrialinnovationofbasicresearchfindingsinsuchareasasphysics,mathematics,andthephysicalsciencesarerealizedonlyafteraconsiderablelag.Virtuallyallofthefieldsof27theresultsof"publicresearch"performedingovernmentlabsoruniversitieswereusedmorefrequentlybyUSindustrialfirms(onaverage,in29.3percentofindustrialR&Dprojects)thanprototypesemergingfromtheseexternalsourcesofresearchFormostindustries,patentsandlicensesinvolvinginventionsfromuniversityorpubliclaboratorieswerereportedtobeofverylittleimportance,comparedwithpublications,conferences,informalinteractionwithuniversityresearchers,andconsulting.theresultsof"publicresearc28国家创新系统中的大学课件295.From“sciencepush”to“technologycommercialization”since1980anumberofindustrializedcountrieshaveimplementedorconsideredpoliciestostrengthen"linkages"betweenuniversitiesandindustry,inordertoenhancethecontributionsofuniversity-basedresearchtoinnovationandeconomicperformance.5.From“sciencepush”to“tech305.1UniversitiesandRegionalEconomicDevelopmentInmanyOECDcountries,effortstoincreasethenationaleconomicreturnsfrompublicinvestmentsinuniversityresearchhaveattemptedtostimulatethecreationof"regionalclusters"ofinnovativefirmsarounduniversities.Theseundertakingsseektostimulateregionaleconomicdevelopmentandagglomerationviafacilitatingthecreationof“spin-off”firmstocommercializeuniversitytechnologies.5.1UniversitiesandRegionalE31Thesepolicyinitiativesaremotivatedbythehigh-technologyregionalclustersintheUnitedStates,notablySiliconValleyinCaliforniaandRoute128intheBostonarea.Bothofthesehigh-technologyclustershaveaspawnedalargenumberofnewfirmsandhavemajorresearchuniversitiesintheirmidst.Thesepolicyinitiativesarem32Butlittleevidencesupportstheargumentthatthepresenceofuniversitiessomehow"causes"thedevelopmentofregionalhigh-technologyagglomerations.Effortstoreplicatethe"SiliconValleymodel"inothereconomieshaveprovendifficultandtheresultsoftheseeffortshavebeenmixed.Butlittleevidencesupportst33NationalandlocalgovernmentsinmanyOECDcountrieshaveattemptedtostimulatetheformationoftheseclustersviafundingfor"scienceparks"Despitethewidespreadinterestinscienceparks,thereislittleevidencethattheypositivelyaffectuniversities'contributionstoinnovationorspurregionaleconomicdevelopment.Nationalandlocalgovernments34SiliconValley'shistoryasacenterfornew-firmformationandinnovationdatesbacktotheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,suggestingthatmuchoftheregion'sinnovative"culture"developedoveramuchlongerperiodoftimeandpredatestheascenttoglobalresearcheminenceofStanfordUniversity.SiliconValley'shistoryasa35themassiveincreaseinfederaldefensespendingafter1945asacatalystfortheformationofnewhigh-technologyfirmsintheregion.Inthisview,thepresenceofleadingresearchuniversitiesmayhavebeennecessary,butwasbynomeanssufficient,tocreateSiliconValleyduringthe1950sand1960s.themassiveincreaseinfedera36TheUSexperiencesuggeststhattheemergenceofsuchagglomerationsisamatterofcontingency,path-dependence,and(mostimportantly)thepresenceofothersupportingpoliciesthatmayhavelittletodowithuniversityresearchortheencouragementofuniversity-industrylinkages.ThepolicyinitiativesintheUnitedStatesandotherOECDeconomiesthatseektouseuniversityresearchand"scienceparks"tostimulateregionaleconomicdevelopmentsufferfromadeficiencythatiscommontomanyoftheotherrecenteffortstostimulateuniversity-industrylinkagesinOECDcountries.TheUSexperiencesuggeststha375.2PatentingtheResultsofPubliclyFundedAcademicResearch5.2.1OriginsoftheBayh-DoleActPublicuniversitiesweremoreheavilyrepresentedinpatentingthanprivateuniversitiesduringthe1925-45period.Thesecharacteristicsofuniversitypatentingbegantochangeafter1970,asprivateuniversitiesexpandedtheirshareofUSuniversitypatenting.LobbyingbyUSresearchuniversitiesactiveinpatentingwasoneofseveralfactorsbehindthepassageoftheBayh-DoleActin1980.5.2PatentingtheResultsofP38TheBayh-DolePatentandTrademarkAmendmentsActof1980providedblanketpermissionforperformersoffederallyfundedresearchtofileforpatentsontheresultsofsuchresearchandtograntlicensesforthesepatents,includingexclusivelicenses,tootherparties.ThepassageoftheBayh-DoleActwasonepartofabroadershiftinUSpolicytowardstrongerintellectualpropertyrights.TheBayh-DolePatentandTrade39theBayh-DoleActassumesthatrestrictionsondisseminationoftheresultsofmanyR&Dprojectswillenhanceeconomicefficiencybysupportingtheircommercialization.Inmanyrespects,theBayh-DoleActistheultimateexpressionoffaithinthe"linearmodel"ofinnovation-ifbasicresearchresultscanbepurchasedbywould-bedevelopers,commercialinnovationwillbeaccelerated.theBayh-DoleActassumesthat405.2.2TheEflectsofBayh-DoleUniversitiesincreasedtheirshareofpatentingfromlessthan0.3percentin1963tonearly4percentby19TheEflectsofBayh-Dole41Duringthelate1990sandearlytwenty-firstcentury,manycommentatorsandpolicymakersportrayedtheBayh-DoleActasacriticalcatalysttogrowthinUSuniversities'innovativeandeconomiccontributions.Indeed,theOECDwentsofarastoarguethattheBayh-DoleActwasanimportantfactorintheremarkablegrowthofincomes,employment,andproductivityintheUSeconomyofthelate1990s.Duringthelate1990sandearl42These"assessments"oftheeffectsoftheBayh--DoleActalsofailtoconsideranypotentiallynegativeeffectsoftheActonUSuniversityresearchorinnovationinthebroadereconomy.Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthe"commercializationmotives"createdbyBayh-Dolecouldshifttheorientationofuniversityresearchawayfrom"basic"andtowards"applied"research.Asecondpotentiallynegativeeffectofincreaseduniversitypatentingandlicensingisthepotentialweakeningofacademicresearchers'commitmentsto"openscience,"leadingtopublicationdelays,secrecy,andwithholdingofdataandmaterials.These"assessments"oftheeff435.2.3International"Emulation"oftheBayh-DoleActAnumberofotherOECDgovernmentspursuepoliciesthatcloselyresembletheBayh-DoleAct.theseinitiativesfocusnarrowlyonthe"deliverable"outputsofuniversityresearch,andtypicallyignoretheeffectsofpatentingandlicensingontheother,moreeconomicallyimportant,channelsthroughwhichuniversitiescontributetoinnovationandeconomicgrowth.5.2.3International"Emulation44suchemulationisbasedonamisreadingofthelimitedevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofBayh-Doleandonmisunderstandingofthefactorsthathaveencouragedthelong-standingandrelativelycloserelationshipbetweenUSuniversitiesandindustrialinnovation.emulationoftheBayh-DoleActisinsufficientandperhapsevenunnecessarytostimulatehigherlevelsofuniversity-industryinteractionandtechnologytransfer.suchemulationisbasedonam456.ConclusionUniversitiesplayimportantrolesinthe"knowledge-based"economiesofmodernindustrialandindustrializingstatesassourcesoftrained"knowledgeworkers"andideasflowingfrombothbasicandmoreappliedresearchactivities.Butconventionaleconomicapproachestotheanalysisofinstitutionsareverydifficulttoapplytouniversities,forseveralreasons6.ConclusionUniversitiesplay46First,withtheexceptionsoftheUSandBritishuniversitysystems,inter-university"competition"hasbeenlimitedinmostnationalsystemsofhighereducation.Second,analyzinguniversitiesaseconomicinstitutionsrequiressomedefinitionoftheobjectivespursuedbyindividualuniversities.First,withtheexceptionsof47Thedevelopmentofusefultheoreticalorconceptualtoolsormodelsforanalyzinguniversitiesaseconomicorotherinstitutionswithinknowledge-basedeconomiesisseriouslyhamperedbythelackofdataontherolesofuniversitiesthatenablecomparisonsacrosstimeoracrossnationalinnovationsystems.Theabsenceofbroaderlongitudinalandcross-nationallycomparableindicatorsofuniversity-industryinteractionthusimpedesboththeformulationandtheevaluationofpolicies.Thedevelopmentofusefultheo48Thankyou！国家创新系统中的大学课件49演讲完毕，谢谢观看！演讲完毕，谢谢观看！50UNIVERSITIESINNATIONAL

INNOVATIONSYSTEMS

byDAVIDC.MOWERYBHAVENN.SAMPATSchoolofpublicpolicy&managementUNIVERSITIESINNATIONAL

INNOV51OutlineIntroductionWhatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldataHowdoesuniversityresearchaffectindustrialinnovation?From“sciencepush”to“technologycommercialization”conclusionOutlineIntroduction521.IntroductionTheresearchuniversityplaysanimportantroleasasourceoffundamentalknowledgeand,occasionally,industriallyrelevanttechnologyinmodernknowledge-basedeconomies.Governmentsthroughouttheindustrializedworldhavelaunchednumerousinitiativessincethe1970stolinkuniversitiestoindustrialinnovationmoreclosely.Manyoftheseinitiativesseektospurlocaleconomicdevelopmentbasedonuniversityresearch.Scienceparks,businessincubators,seedcapital,etc.1.IntroductionTheresearchuni53Ratherthan"ivorytowers"devotedtothepursuitofknowledgeforitsownsake,agrowingnumberofindustrial-economyanddeveloping-economygovernmentsseektouseuniversitiesasinstrumentsforknowledge-basedeconomicdevelopmentandchange.Inthe"knowledge-basedeconomy",nationalsystemsofhighereducationcanbeastrategicasset,iflinkswithindustryarestrengthenedandthetransferoftechnologyenhancedandaccelerated.Ratherthan"ivorytowers"dev54UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDalsohavebeenaffectedbytighterconstraintsonpublicfundingsince1970.GrowthinpublicfundingforhighereducationhasslowedinanumberofOECDmemberstates.Facedwithincreasedcompetitionforresearchfunding,andcontinuingcostpressureswithinoperatingbudgetsduringthepasttwodecades,someuniversitieshavebecomemoreaggressiveand"entrepreneurial"inseekingnewsourcesoffunding.Bothinternalandexternal

factorsthushaveledmanynations'universitiestopromotestrongerlinkageswithindustryasameansofstrengtheningtheircontributionstoinnovationandeconomicgrowth.UniversitiesthroughouttheOE552.Whatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?thedefinitionof“nationalinnovationsystems”:theinstitutionsandactorsthataffectthecreation,development,anddiffusionofinnovations.Universitiesarewidelycitedascriticalinstitutionalactorsinnationalinnovationsystems.2.Whatfunctionsdouniversiti56UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDnowcombinethefunctionsofeducationandresearch.Thisjointproductionoftrainedpersonnelandadvancedresearchmaybemoreeffectivethanspecializationinoneortheotheractivity.Theeconomicallyimportant"outputs"ofuniversityresearchhavecomeindifferentforms:scientificandtechnologicalinformation,equipmentandinstrumentation,skillsorhumancapital,networksofscientificandtechnologicalcapabilities,prototypesfornewproductsandprocesses.UniversitiesthroughouttheOE57Oneinfluentialconceptualizationoftheroleofacademicresearchwithinnationalinnovationsystemsandeconomieswastheso-called"linearmodel"ofinnovationwidelyassociatedwithVannevarBushandhisfamous"blueprint"fortheUSpost-1945R&Dsystem,Science:TheEndlessFrontier.BusharguedforexpandedpublicfundingforbasicresearchwithinUSuniversitiesasacriticalcontributortoeconomicgrowth,andarguedthatuniversitieswerethemostappropriateinstitutionallocusforbasicresearch.Oneinfluentialconceptualizat58This"linearmodel"oftheinnovationprocessassertedthatfundingofbasicresearchwasbothnecessaryandsufficienttopromoteinnovation.Yetanotherviewoftheroleofuniversityresearchfocusesonthecontrasting"norms"ofacademicandindustrialresearch.This"linearmodel"oftheinn59Foracademicresearchers,professionalrecognitionandadvancementdependcruciallyonbeingfirsttodiscloseandpublishtheirresult.Industrialinnovation,bycontrast,reliesmoreheavilyonsecrecyandlimitationstothedisclosureofresearchresults.Thesignificanceofthese"culturaldifferences"fortheconductofresearchmayassumegreatersignificanceinthefaceofcloserlinksbetweenuniversityandindustrialresearchers.Foracademicresearchers,prof60Anotherconceptualframeworkthathasbeenappliedrecentlytodescriptionsoftheroleofacademicresearchin"post-modern"industrialsocietiesisthe"Mode2"conceptofresearch."Mode2"researchisassociatedwithamoreinterdisciplinary,"networked"innovationsystem,incontrasttotheprevioussysteminwhichmajorcorporateoracademicresearchinstitutionswerelesscloselylinkedwithotherinstitutions.Anotherconceptualframeworkt61Stillanotherconceptualframeworkforanalyzingthechangingpositionofuniversitieswithinnationalinnovationsystemsisthe"TripleHelix".thetriplehelixemphasizestheincreasedinteractionamongtheseinstitutionalactorsinindustrialeconomies'innovationsystems.Stillanotherconceptualframe62The"nationalsystems,""Mode2,"and"triplehelix"frameworksforconceptualizingtheroleoftheresearchuniversitywithintheinnovationprocessesofknowledge-basedeconomiesemphasizetheimportanceofstronglinksbetweenuniversitiesandotherinstitutionalactorsintheseeconomies.Whatislackinginalloftheseframeworks,however,isaclearsetofcriteriabywhichtoassessthestrengthofsuchlinkagesandasetofindicatorstoguidethecollectionofdata.The"nationalsystems,""Mode633.Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldata3.1ComparativeDataontheStructureofNationalSystemsThroughoutthetwentiethcentury,USuniversitiesretainedgreatautonomyintheiradministrativepolicies.

Rosenberg(1999)andBen-David(1968)arguethatthislackofcentralcontrolforcedAmericanuniversitiestobemore"entrepreneurial"andtheirresearchandcurriculatobemoreresponsivetoc