新东方英语背诵50篇文本

新东方英语背诵50篇文本新东方英语背诵50篇文本新东方英语背诵50篇文本新东方英语背诵50篇文本编制仅供参考审核批准生效日期地址：电话：传真:邮编:01TheLanguageofMusicApainterhangshisorherfinishedpicturesonawall,andeveryonecanseeit.Acomposerwritesawork,butnoonecanhearituntilitisperformed.Professionalsingersandplayershavegreatresponsibilities,forthecomposerisutterlydependentonthem.Astudentofmusicneedsaslongandasarduousatrainingtobecomeaperformerasamedicalstudentneedstobecomeadoctor.Mosttrainingisconcernedwithtechnique,formusicianshavetohavethemuscularproficiencyofanathleteoraballetdancer.Singerspracticebreathingeveryday,astheirvocalchordswouldbeinadequatewithoutcontrolledmuscularsupport.Stringplayerspracticemovingthefingersofthelefthandupanddown,whiledrawingthebowtoandfrowiththerightarm—twoentirelydifferentmovements.Singersandinstrumentshavetobeabletogeteverynoteperfectlyintune.Pianistsaresparedthisparticularanxiety,forthenotesarealreadythere,waitingforthem,anditisthepianotuner’sresponsibilitytotunetheinstrumentforthem.Buttheyhavetheirowndifficulties;thehammersthathitthestringhavetobecoaxednottosoundlikepercussion,andeachoverlappingtonehastosoundclear.Thisproblemofgettingcleartextureisonethatconfrontsstudentconductors:theyhavetolearntoknoweverynoteofthemusicandhowitshouldsound,andtheyhavetoaimatcontrollingthesesoundwithfanaticalbutselflessauthority.Techniqueisofnouseunlessitiscombinedwithmusicalknowledgeandunderstanding.Greatartistsarethosewhoaresothoroughlyathomeinthelanguageofmusicthattheycanenjoyperformingworkswritteninanycentury.02SchoolingandEducationItiscommonlybelievedinUnitedStatesthatschooliswherepeoplegotogetaneducation.NeverthelessEducationismuchmoreopen-endedandall-inclusivethanschooling.Educationknowsnobounds.Itcantakeplaceanywhere,whetherintheshowerorinthejob,whetherinakitchenoronatractor.Itincludesboththeformallearningthattakesplaceinschoolsandthewholeuniverseofinformallearning.Theagentsofeducationcanrangefromareveredgrandparenttothepeopledebatingpoliticsontheradio,fromachildtoadistinguishedscientist.Whereasschoolinghasacertainpredictability,educationquiteoftenproducessurprises.Achanceconversationwithastrangermayleadapersontodiscoverhowlittleisknownofotherreligions.Peopleareengagedineducationfrominfancyon.Education,then,isaverybroad,inclusiveterm.Itisalifelongprocess,aprocessthatstartslongbeforethestartofschool,andonethatshouldbeanintegralpartofone’sentirelife.Schooling,ontheotherhand,isaspecific,formalizedprocess,whosegeneralpatternvarieslittlefromonesettingtothenext.Throughoutacountry,childrenarriveatschoolatapproximatelythesametime,takeassignedseats,aretaughtbyanadult,usesimilartextbooks,dohomework,takeexams,andsoon.Theslicesofrealitythataretobelearned,whethertheyarethealphabetoranunderstandingoftheworkingofgovernment,haveusuallybeenlimitedbytheboundariesofthesubjectbeingtaught.Forexample,highschoolstudentsknowthattherenotlikelytofindoutintheirclassesthetruthaboutpoliticalproblemsintheircommunitiesorwhatthenewestfilmmakersareexperimentingwith.Therearedefiniteconditionssurroundingtheformalizedprocessofschooling.03TheDefinitionof“Price”Pricesdeterminehowresourcesaretobeused.Theyarealsothemeansbywhichproductsandservicesthatareinlimitedsupplyarerationedamongbuyers.ThepricesystemoftheUnitedStatesisacomplexnetworkcomposedofthepricesofalltheproductsboughtandsoldintheeconomyaswellasthoseofamyriadofservices,includinglabor,professional,transportation,andpublic-utilityservices.Theinterrelationshipsofallthesepricesmakeupthe“system”ofprices.Thepriceofanyparticularproductorserviceislinkedtoabroad,complicatedsystemofpricesinwhicheverythingseemstodependmoreorlessuponeverythingelse.Ifoneweretoaskagroupofrandomlyselectedindividualstodefine“price”,manywouldreplythatpriceisanamountofmoneypaidbythebuyertothesellerofaproductorserviceor,inotherwordsthatpriceisthemoneyvaluesofaproductorserviceasagreeduponinamarkettransaction.Thisdefinitionis,ofcourse,validasfarasitgoes.Foracompleteunderstandingofapriceinanyparticulartransaction,muchmorethantheamountofmoneyinvolvedmustbeknown.Boththebuyerandthesellershouldbefamiliarwithnotonlythemoneyamount,butwiththeamountandqualityoftheproductorservicetobeexchanged,thetimeandplaceatwhichtheexchangewilltakeplaceandpaymentwillbemade,theformofmoneytobeused,thecredittermsanddiscountsthatapplytothetransaction,guaranteesontheproductorservice,deliveryterms,returnprivileges,andotherfactors.Inotherwords,bothbuyerandsellershouldbefullyawareofallthefactorsthatcomprisethetotal“package”beingexchangedfortheasked-foramountofmoneyinorderthattheymayevaluateagivenprice.04ElectricityThemodernageisanageofelectricity.Peoplearesousedtoelectriclights,radio,televisions,andtelephonesthatitishardtoimaginewhatlifewouldbelikewithoutthem.Whenthereisapowerfailure,peoplegropeaboutinflickeringcandlelight,carshesitateinthestreetsbecausetherearenotrafficlightstoguidethem,andfoodspoilsinsilentrefrigerators.Yet,peoplebegantounderstandhowelectricityworksonlyalittlemorethantwocenturiesago.Naturehasapparentlybeenexperimentinginthisfieldformillionofyears.Scientistsarediscoveringmoreandmorethatthelivingworldmayholdmanyinterestingsecretsofelectricitythatcouldbenefithumanity.Alllivingcellsendouttinypulsesofelectricity.Astheheartbeats,itsendsoutpulsesofrecord;theyformanelectrocardiogram,whichadoctorcanstudytodeterminehowwelltheheartisworking.Thebrain,too,sendsoutbrainwavesofelectricity,whichcanberecordedinanelectroencephalogram.Theelectriccurrentsgeneratedbymostlivingcellsareextremelysmall–oftensosmallthatsensitiveinstrumentsareneededtorecordthem.Butinsomeanimals,certainmusclecellshavebecomesospecializedaselectricalgeneratorsthattheydonotworkasmusclecellsatall.Whenlargenumbersofthesecellarelinkedtogether,theeffectscanbeastonishing.Theelectriceelisanamazingstoragebattery.Itcanseedajoltofasmuchaseighthundredvoltsofelectricitythroughthewaterinwhichitlive.(Anelectrichousecurrentisonlyonehundredtwentyvolts.)Asmanyasfour-fifthsofallthecellsintheelectriceel’sbodyarespecializedforgeneratingelectricity,andthestrengthoftheshockitcandelivercorrespondsroughlytolengthofitsbody.05TheBeginningofDramaTherearemanytheoriesaboutthebeginningofdramainancientGreece.Theonmostwidelyacceptedtodayisbasedontheassumptionthatdramaevolvedfromritual.Theargumentforthisviewgoesasfollows.Inthebeginning,humanbeingsviewedthenaturalforcesoftheworld-eventheseasonalchanges-asunpredictable,andtheysoughtthroughvariousmeanstocontroltheseunknownandfearedpowers.Thosemeasureswhichappearedtobringthedesiredresultswerethenretainedandrepeateduntiltheyhardenedintofixedrituals.Eventuallystoriesarosewhichexplainedorveiledthemysteriesoftherites.Astimepassedsomeritualswereabandoned,butthestories,latercalledmyths,persistedandprovidedmaterialforartanddrama.Thosewhobelievethatdramaevolvedoutofritualalsoarguethatthoseritescontainedtheseedoftheaterbecausemusic,dance,masks,andcostumeswerealmostalwaysused,Furthermore,asuitablesitehadtobeprovidedforperformancesandwhentheentirecommunitydidnotparticipate,acleardivisionwasusuallymadebetweenthe"actingarea"andthe"auditorium."Inaddition,therewereperformers,and,sinceconsiderableimportancewasattachedtoavoidingmistakesintheenactmentofrites,religiousleadersusuallyassumedthattask.Wearingmasksandcostumes,theyoftenimpersonatedotherpeople,animals,orsupernaturalbeings,andmimedthedesiredeffect-successinhuntorbattle,thecomingrain,therevivaloftheSun-asanactormight.Eventuallysuchdramaticrepresentationswereseparatedfromreligiousactivities.Anothertheorytracesthetheater'soriginfromthehumaninterestinstorytelling.Accordingtothisviestales(aboutthehunt,war,orotherfeats)aregraduallyelaborated,atfirstthroughtheuseofimpersonation,action,anddialoguebyanarratorandthenthroughtheassumptionofeachoftherolesbyadifferentperson.Acloselyrelatedtheorytracestheatertothosedancesthatareprimarilyrhythmicalandgymnasticorthatareimitationsofanimalmovementsandsounds.06TelevisionTelevisionthemostpervasiveandpersuasiveofmoderntechnologies,markedbyrapidchangeandgrowth-ismovingintoanewera,aneraofextraordinarysophisticationandversatility,whichpromisestoreshapeourlivesandourworld.Itisanelectronicrevolutionofsorts,madepossiblebythemarriageoftelevisionandcomputertechnologies.Theword"television",derivedfromitsGreek(tele:distant)andLatin(visio:sight)roots,canliterallybeinterpretedassightfromadistance.Verysimplyput,itworksinthisway:throughasophisticatedsystemofelectronics,televisionprovidesthecapabilityofconvertinganimage(focusedonaspecialphotoconductiveplatewithinacamera)intoelectronicimpulses,whichcanbesentthroughawireorcable.Theseimpulses,whenfedintoareceiver(televisionset),canthenbeelectronicallyreconstitutedintothatsameimage.Televisionismorethanjustanelectronicsystem,however.Itisameansofexpression,aswellasavehicleforcommunication,andassuchbecomesapowerfultoolforreachingotherhumanbeings.Thefieldoftelevisioncanbedividedintotwocategoriesdeterminedbyitsmeansoftransmission.First,thereisbroadcasttelevision,whichreachesthemassesthroughbroad-basedairwavetransmissionoftelevisionsignals.Second,thereisnonbroadcasttelevision,whichprovidesfortheneedsofindividualsorspecificinterestgroupsthroughcontrolledtransmissiontechniques.Traditionally,televisionhasbeenamediumofthemasses.Wearemostfamiliarwithbroadcasttelevisionbecauseithasbeenwithusforaboutthirty-sevenyearsinaformsimilartowhatexiststoday.Duringthoseyears,ithasbeencontrolled,forthemostpart,bythebroadcastnetworks,ABC,NBC,andCBS,whohavebeenthemajorpurveyorsofnews,information,andentertainment.Thesegiantsofbroadcastinghaveactuallyshapednotonlytelevisionbutourperceptionofitaswell.Wehavecometolookuponthepicturetubeasasourceofentertainment,placingourroleinthisdynamicmediumasthepassiveviewer.07AndrewCarnegieAndrewCarnegie,knownastheKingofSteel,builtthesteelindustryintheUnitedStates,and,intheprocess,becameoneofthewealthiestmeninAmerica.Hissuccessresultedinpartfromhisabilitytoselltheproductandinpartfromhispolicyofexpandingduringperiodsofeconomicdecline,whenmostofhiscompetitorswerereducingtheirinvestments.Carnegiebelievedthatindividualsshouldprogressthroughhardwork,buthealsofeltstronglythatthewealthyshouldusetheirfortunesforthebenefitofsociety.Heopposedcharity,preferringinsteadtoprovideeducationalopportunitiesthatwouldallowotherstohelpthemselves."Hewhodiesrich,diesdisgraced,"heoftensaid.Amonghismorenoteworthycontributionstosocietyarethosethatbearhisname,includingtheCarnegieInstituteofPittsburgh,whichhasalibrary,amuseumoffinearts,andamuseumofnationalhistory.HealsofoundedaschooloftechnologythatisnowpartofCarnegie-MellonUniversityFewAmericanshavebeenleftuntouchedbyAndrewCarnegie'sgenerosity.Hiscontributionsofmorethanfivemilliondollarsestablished2,500librariesinsmallcommunitiesthroughoutthecountryandformedthenucleusofthepubliclibrarysystemthatweallenjoytoday.08AmericanRevolutionTheAmericanRevolutionwasnotasuddenandviolentoverturningofthepoliticalandsocialframework,suchaslateroccurredinFranceandRussia,whenbothwerealreadyindependentnations.Significantchangeswereusheredin,buttheywerenotbreathtaking.Whathappenedwasacceleratedevolutionratherthanoutrightrevolution.Duringtheconflictitselfpeoplewentonworkingandpraying,marryingandplaying.Mostofthemwerenotseriouslydisturbedbytheactualfighting,andmanyofthemoreisolatedcommunitiesscarcelyknewthatawarwason.America'sWarofIndependenceheraldedthebirthofthreemodernnations.OnewasCanada,whichreceiveditsfirstlargeinfluxofEnglish-speakingpopulationfromthethousandsofloyalistswhofledtherefromtheUnitedStates.AnotherwasAustralia,whichbecameapenalcolonynowthatAmericawasnolongeravailableforprisonersanddebtors.Thethirdnewcomer-theUnitedStates-baseditselfsquarelyonrepublicanprinciples.Yeteventhepoliticaloverturnwasnotsorevolutionaryasonemightsuppose.Insomestates,notablyConnecticutandRhodeIsland09SuburbanizationIfby"suburb"ismeantanurbanmarginthatgrowsmorerapidlythanitsalreadydevelopedinterior,theprocessofsuburbanizationbeganduringtheemergenceoftheindustrialcityinthesecondquarterofthenineteenthcentury.Beforethatperiodthecitywasasmallhighlycompactclusterinwhichpeoplemovedaboutonfootandgoodswereconveyedbyhorseandcart.Buttheearlyfactoriesbuiltinthe1840'swerelocatedalongwaterwaysandnearrailheadsattheedgesofcities,andhousingwasneededforthethousandsofpeopledrawnbytheprospectofemployment.Intime,thefactoriesweresurroundedbyproliferatingmilltownsofapartmentsandrowhousesthatabuttedtheolder,maincities.Asadefenseagainstthisencroachmentandtoenlargetheirtaxbases,thecitiesappropriatedtheirindustrialneighbors.In1854,forexample,thecityofPhiladelphiaannexedmostofPhiladelphiaCounty.SimilarmunicipalmaneuverstookplaceinChicagoandinNewYork.Indeed,mostgreatcitiesofthe

Withtheaccelerationofindustrialgrowthcameacuteurbancrowdingandaccompanyingsocialstress-conditionsthatbegantoapproachdisastrousproportionswhen,in1888,thefirstcommerciallysuccessfulelectrictractionlinewasdeveloped.Withinafewyearsthehorse-drawntrolleyswereretiredandelectricstreetcarnetworkscrisscrossedandconnectedeverymajorurbanarea,fosteringawaveofsuburbanizationthattransformedthecompactindustrialcityintoadispersedmetropolis.Thisfirstphaseofmass-scalesuburbanizationwasreinforcedbythesimultaneousemergenceoftheurbanMiddleClass,whosedesiresforhomeownershipinneighborhoodsfarfromtheaginginnercityweresatisfiedbythedevelopersofsingle-familyhousingtracts.10TypesofSpeechStandardusageincludesthosewordsandexpressionsunderstood,used,andacceptedbyamajorityofthespeakersofalanguageinanysituationregardlessofthelevelofformality.Assuch,thesewordsandexpressionsarewelldefinedandlistedinstandarddictionaries.Colloquialisms,ontheotherhand,arefamiliarwordsandidiomsthatareunderstoodbyalmostallspeakersofalanguageandusedininformalspeechorwriting,butnotconsideredappropriateformoreformalsituations.Almostallidiomaticexpressionsarecolloquiallanguage.Slang,however,referstowordsandexpressionsunderstoodbyalargenumberofspeakersbutnotacceptedasgood,formalusagebythemajority.Colloquialexpressionsandevenslangmaybefoundinstandarddictionariesbutwillbesoidentified.Bothcolloquialusageandslangaremorecommoninspeechthaninwriting.Colloquialspeechoftenpassesintostandardspeech.Someslangalsopassesintostandardspeech,butotherslangexpressionsenjoymomentarypopularityfollowedbyobscurity.Insomecases,themajorityneveracceptscertainslangphrasesbutneverthelessretainsthemintheircollectivememories.Everygenerationseemstorequireitsownsetofwordstodescribefamiliarobjectsandevents.Ithasbeenpointedoutbyanumberoflinguiststhatthreeculturalconditionsarenecessaryforthecreationofalargebodyofslangexpressions.First,theintroductionandacceptanceofnewobjectsandsituationsinthesociety;second,adiversepopulationwithalargenumberofsubgroups;third,associationamongthesubgroupsandthemajoritypopulation.Finally,itisworthnotingthattheterms"standard""colloquial"and"slang"existonlyasabstractlabelsforscholarswhostudylanguage.Onlyatinynumberofthespeakersofanylanguagewillbeawarethattheyareusingcolloquialorslangexpressions.MostspeakersofEnglishwill,duringappropriatesituations,selectanduseallthreetypesofexpressions.11ArchaeologyArchaeologyisasourceofhistory,notjustabumbleauxiliarydiscipline.Archaeologicaldataarehistoricaldocumentsintheirownright,notmereillustrationstowrittentexts,Justasmuchasanyotherhistorian,anarchaeologiststudiesandtriestoreconstitutetheprocessthathascreatedthehumanworldinwhichwelive-andusourselvesinsofarasweareeachcreaturesofourageandsocialenvironment.Archaeologicaldataareallchangesinthematerialworldresultingfromhumanactionor,moresuccinctly,thefossilizedresultsofhumanbehavior.Thesumtotaloftheseconstituteswhatmaybecalledthearchaeologicalrecord.Thisrecordexhibitscertainpeculiaritiesanddeficienciestheconsequencesofwhichproducearathersuperficialcontrastbetweenarchaeologicalhistoryandthemorefamiliarkindbaseduponwrittenrecords.Notallhumanbehaviorfossilizes.ThewordsIutterandyouhearasvibrationsintheairarecertainlyhumanchangesinthematerialworldandmaybeofgreathistoricalsignificance.Yettheyleavenosortoftraceinthearchaeologicalrecordsunlesstheyarecapturedbyadictaphoneorwrittendownbyaclerk.Themovementoftroopsonthebattlefieldmay"changethecourseofhistory,"butthisisequallyephemeralfromthearchaeologist'sstandpoint.Whatisperhapsworse,mostorganicmaterialsareperishable.Everythingmadeofwood,hide,wool,linen,grass,hair,andsimilarmaterialswilldecayandvanishindustinafewyearsorcenturies,saveunderveryexceptionalconditions.Inarelativelybriefperiodthearchaeologicalrecordisreducetomerescrapsofstone,bone,glass,metal,andearthenware.Stillmodernarchaeology,byapplyingappropriatetechniquesandcomparativemethods,aidedbyafewluckyfindsfrompeat-bogs,deserts,andfrozensoils,isabletofillupagooddealofthegap.12MuseumsFromBostontoLosAngeles,fromNewYorkCitytoChicagotoDallas,museumsareeitherplanning,building,orwrappingupwholesaleexpansionprograms.Theseprogramsalreadyhaveradicallyalteredfacadesandfloorplansorareexpectedtodosointhenot-too-distantfutInNewYorkCityalone,sixmajorinstitutionshavespreadupandoutintotheairspaceandneighborhoodsaroundthemorarepreparingtodoso.Thereasonsforthisconfluenceofactivityarecomplex,butonefactorisaconsiderationeverywhere-space.Withcollectionsexpanding,withtheneedsandfunctionsofmuseumschanging,emptyspacehasbecomeaverypreciouscommodity.ProbablynowhereinthecountryisthismoretruethanatthePhiladelphiaMuseumofArt,whichhasneededadditionalspacefordecadesandwhichreceiveditslastsignificantfacelifttenyearsago.Becauseofthespacecrunch,theArtMuseumhasbecomeincreasinglycautiousinconsideringacquisitionsanddonationsofart,insomecasespassingupopportunitiestostrengthenitscollections.Deaccessing-orsellingoff-worksofarthastakenonnewimportancebecauseofthemuseum'sspaceproblems.Andincreasingly,curatorshavebeenforcedtojugglegalleryspace,rotatingonemasterpieceintopublicviewwhileanotherissenttostorage.Despitetheclearneedforadditionalgalleryandstoragespace,however,"themuseumhasnoplan,noplantobreakoutofitsenvelopeinthenextfifteenyears,"accordingtoPhiladelphiaMuseumofArt'spresident.13SkyscrapersandEnvironmentInthelate1960's,manypeopleinNorthAmericaturnedtheirattentiontoenvironmentalproblems,andnewsteel-and-glassskyscraperswerewidelycriticized.Ecologistspointedoutthataclusteroftallbuildingsinacityoftenoverburdenspublictransportationandparkinglotcapacities.Skyscrapersarealsolavishconsumers,andwasters,ofelectricpower.Inonerecentyear,theadditionof17millionsquarefeetofskyscraperofficespaceinNewYorkCityraisedthepeakdailydemandforelectricityby120,000kilowatts-enoughtosupplytheentirecityofAlbany,NewYork,foraday.Glass-walledskyscraperscanbeespeciallywasteful.Theheatloss(orgain)throughawallofhalf-inchplateglassismorethantentimesthatthroughatypicalmasonrywallfilledwithinsulationboard.Tolessenthestrainonheatingandair-conditioningequipment,buildersofskyscrapershavebeguntousedouble-glazedpanelsofglass,andreflectiveglassescoatedwithsilverorgoldmirrorfilmsthatreduceglareaswellasheatgain.However,mirror-walledskyscrapersraisethetemperatureofthesurroundingairandaffectneighboringbuildings.Skyscrapersputaseverestrainonacity'ssanitationfacilities,too.Iffullyoccupied,thetwoWorldTradeCentertowersinNewYorkCitywouldalonegenerate2.25milliongallonsofrawsewageeachyear-asmuchasacitythesizeofStanford,Connecticut,whichhasapopulationofmorethan109,000.14ARareFossilRecordThepreservationofembryosandjuvenilesisarateoccurrenceinthefossilrecord.Thetiny,delicateskeletonsareusuallyscatteredbyscavengersordestroyedbyweatheringbeforetheycanbefossilized.Ichthyosaurshadahigherchanceofbeingpreservedthandidterrestrialcreaturesbecause,asmarineanimals,theytendedtoliveinenvironmentslesssubjecttoerosion.Still,theirfossilizationrequiredasuiteoffactors:aslowrateofdecayofsofttissues,littlescavengingbyotheranimals,alackofswiftcurrentsandwavestojumbleandcarryawaysmallbones,andfairlyrapidburial.Giventhesefactors,someareashavebecomeatreasuryofwell-preservedichthyosaurfossils.ThedepositsatHolzmaden,Germany,presentaninterestingcaseforanalysis.Theichthyosaurremainsarefoundinblack,bituminousmarineshalesdepositedabout190millionyearsago.Overtheyears,thousandsofspecimensofmarinereptiles,fishandinvertebrateshavebeenrecoveredfromtheserocks.Thequalityofpreservationisoutstanding,butwhatisevenmoreimpressiveisthenumberofichthyosaurfossilscontainingpreservedembryos.Ichthyosaurswithembryoshavebeenreportedfrom6differentlevelsoftheshaleinasmallareaaroundHolzmadWhyaretheresomanypregnantfemalesandyoungatHolzmadenwhentheyaresorareelsewhereThequalityofpreservationisalmostunmatchedandquarryoperationshavebeencarriedoutcarefullywithanawarenessofthevalueofthefossils.Butthesefactorsdonotaccountfortheinterestingquestionofhowtherecametobesuchaconcentrationofpregnantichthyosaursinaparticularplaceveryclosetotheirtimeofgivingbirth.15TheNobelForthelast82years,Sweden'sNobelAcademyhasdecidedwhowillreceivetheNobelPrizeinLiterature,therebydeterminingwhowillbeelevatedfromthegreatandtheneargreattotheimmortal.ButtodaytheAcademyiscomingunderheavycriticismbothfromthewithoutandfromwithin.CriticscontendthattheselectionofthewinnersoftenhaslesstodowithtruewritingabilitythanwiththepeculiarinternalpoliticsoftheAcademyandofTheAcademyhasdefendeditselfagainstsuchchargesofprovincialisminitsselectionbyassertingthatitsphysicaldistancefromthegreatliterarycapitalsoftheworldactuallyservestoprotecttheAcademyfromoutsideinfluences.Thismaywellbetrue,butcriticsrespondthatthisverydistancemayalsoberesponsiblefortheAcademy'sinabilitytoperceiveaccuratelyauthentictrendsintheliteraryworld.Regardlessofconcernsovertheselectionprocess,however,itseemsthattheprizewillcontinuetosurvivebothasanindicatoroftheliteraturethatwemosthighlypraise,andasanelusivegoalthatwritersseek.Iffornootherreason,theprizewillcontinuetobedesirableforthefinancialrewardsthataccompanyit;notonlyisthecashprizeitselfconsiderable,butitalsodramaticallyincreasessalesofanauthor'sbooks.16.thewarbetweenBritainandFrance

Inthelateeighteenthcentury,battlesragedinalmosteverycornerofEurope,aswellasintheMiddleEast,southAfrica,theWestIndies,andLatinAmerica.Inreality,however,therewasonlyonemajorwarduringthistime,thewarbetweenBritainandFrance.Allotherbattleswereancillarytothislargerconflict,andwereoftenatleastpartiallyrelatedtoitsantagonist’goalsandstrategies.FrancesoughttotaldominationofEurope.thisgoalwasobstructedbyBritishindependenceandBritain’seffortsthroughoutthecontinenttothwartNapoleon;throughtreaties.Britainbuiltcoalitions(notdissimilarinconcepttotoday’sNATO)guaranteeingBritishparticipationinallmajorEuropeanconflicts.Thesetwoantagonistswerepoorlymatched,insofarastheyhadveryunequalstrengths;Francewaspredominantonland,Britainatsea.TheFrenchknewthat,shortofdefeatingtheBritishnavy,theironlyhopeofvictorywastoclosealltheportsofEuropetoBritishships.Accordingly,FrancesetouttoovercomeBritainbyextendingitsmilitarydominationfromMoscowtLisbon,fromJutlandtoCalabria.Allofthisentailedtremendousrisk,becauseFrancedidnothavethemilitaryresourcestocontrol