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关于语言学基本入门介绍第1页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六DifferencewiththeFreshmencourseTaughtinEnglishTextbookwritteninEnglishContent(内容)moredemanding(很费心的,很费力的)EnglishisFun!第2页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六2PossibledifficultiesTerminology(术语)TheoreticalthinkingSystemofknowledgeProblem-solving第3页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六3Textbook《语言学教程》胡壮麟主编北京大学出版社E-book:–资源中心—课堂教学第4页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六4TeachingLecturesDiscussionAssignments(分配):shortessays,analysisoflinguisticdata(资料).第5页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六5Learning
ParticipationReadingandunderstandingtextbooksDoingexercisesandassignments(工作,任务)Developingtheabilityoflogical(逻辑的)thinking第6页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六6Assessment(评价,评估)Coursework:30%.Consistsofattendanceandassignmentsaftereachchapter.End-of-termexam:70%.第7页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六7ChapterOne
Invitations(邀请)toLinguistics第8页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六1.WhyStudyLanguage?第9页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六9myths(神话)orfundamentalviews?Languageisatooltootherfieldsofknowledgeratherthanasubjectinandofitself.Languageisonlyameansofcommunication.Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence(通信).Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation.EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.BlackEnglishisnotstandardandshouldbereformed.第10页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六10Childrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.Languageoperatesbyrules.Alllanguageshavethreemajorcomponents:asoundsystem(语音系统),asystemoflexicogrammar(词汇语法系统)andasystemofsemantics(语义系统).Everyonespeaksadialect.Languageslowlychanges.第11页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六11Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstyles(语体)andasetofjargons(行话).Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualswhousethem.Writingisderivative(衍生)ofspeech.第12页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六12Linguisticscanbeusedasawayoffindingoutmoreabout…Howlanguageoperates(chapter2-5)
speechsoundsmorphemetophrasewordtotextmeaningHowthebrainworks(chapter6:LanguageandCognition)Howchildrenlearnlanguage(chapter6)Howpeoplelearnandteachdifferentlanguages(chapter6&chapter11)Whattherelationshipbetweenmeaningandperception(感知)is(chapter5&chapter6)第13页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六13Whattheroleoflanguageisindifferentcultures(chapter7:language,cultureandsociety;Chapter9:LanguageandLiterature)Whypeopleusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage(chapter7&chapter8:Languageinuse)Whytherearelinguisticdifferencesbetweendifferentgroups(chapter6-9)Howscientistsmakethecomputerworkinamorehuman-likeorder(Chapter10:Languageandcomputer).第14页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六142.WhatisLanguage?Webster’sNewWorldDictionaryoffersseveralmostfrequentlyusedsensesoftheword“Language”[1](a)humanspeech;(b)theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans;(c)asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed(语音和语义的结合系统),usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;(d)thewrittenrepresentation(书写形式)ofsuchasystem;
第15页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六15[2](a)anymeansofexpressingorcommunicating,asgestures,signs,oranimalsounds;(b)aspecialsetofsymbols,letters,numerals,rulesetc.usedforthetransmission(传递)ofinformation,asinacomputer;…Suffice(足够)ittosayherethatthoughweusethewordinitsvarioussenses,wefocushereonitsprimarysense:namely,[1](a)(b)(c)(d).第16页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六162.WhatisLanguage?Language“isnottobeconfusedwithhumanspeech,ofwhichitisonlyadefinitepart,thoughcertainlyanessentialone.Itisbothasocialproductofthefacultyofspeechandacollectionofnecessaryconventionsthathavebeenadoptedbyasocialbodytopermitindividualstoexercisethatfaculty”.--FerdinanddeSaussure(1857-1913):CourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916)第17页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六17“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”--EdwardSapir(1884-1939):Language:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofSpeech(1921)第18页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六18“Alanguageisasystemofarbitrary(随意的)vocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichasocialgroupco-operates.”--BernardBloch(1907-1965)
&GeorgeTrager(1906-1992):OutlineofLinguisticAnalysis(1942)“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichthemembersofasocietyinteractintermsoftheirtotalculture.”--GeorgeTrager:TheFieldofLinguistics(1949)第19页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六19“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”--NoamChomsky(1928-):SyntacticStructures(1957)第20页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六20Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”--RobertA.Hall(1911-1997):IntroductoryLinguistics(1964)“Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.”--RonaldWardhaugh:IntroductiontoLinguistics(1977)第21页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六21“Thequestion‘Whatislanguage?’iscomparablewith--and,somewouldsay,hardlylessprofoundthan--
‘Whatislife?’,thepresuppositionsofwhichcircumscribeandunifythebiologicalsciences...itisnotsomuchthequestionitselfastheparticularinterpretationthatthebiologistputsuponitandtheunravellingofitsmoredetailedimplicationswithinsomecurrentlyacceptedtheoreticalframeworkthatnourishthebiologist'sday-to-dayspeculationsandresearch.Soitisforthelinguistinrelationtothequestion‘Whatislanguage?’”--JohnLyons(1932-):LanguageandLinguistics(1981)
第22页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六22“...inasensealldefinitions[oflanguage]are,bythemselves,inadequate,since,iftheyaretobemorethantrivialanduninformative,theymustpresuppose...somegeneraltheoryoflanguageandoflinguisticanalysis.”--R.H.Robins(1921-2000):GeneralLinguistics(1989)第23页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六23“Languageisaformofhumancommunicationbymeansofasystemofsymbolsprincipallytransmittedbyvocalsounds.”--StuartC.Poole:AnIntroductiontoLinguistics(1999)第24页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六24Tosumup:“Languageisameansofverbal(口头的)communication.”instrumental(工具性):communicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulactsocialandconventional(约定俗成性)
:languageisasocialsemiotic(符号学的)
andcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues(暗示,指示),motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.
Sophisticated(复杂性):Languagelearningandusearedeterminedbytheinterventionofbiological,cognitive,psycho-social,andenvironmentalfactors.第25页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六253.DesignFeatures(本质特征)ofLanguageWhatmakeshumanlanguagesocomplicatedandflexible(灵活的),sounrestrained(不受抑制的)bytheimmediatecontextandsocapableofcreatingnewmeanings?第26页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六26Humanlanguageis‘unique’Arbitrariness(任意性)Duality(二重性)Creativity(创造性)Displacement(移位性)
第27页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六273.1Arbitrariness
Saussure:theformsoflinguisticsigns(signifiant)bearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning(signifie)Arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning
dog
犬(いぬ)
狗
第28页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六28Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel(穿)红衣的女孩今天早晨在教室里看书。Thegirlinredreadabookintheclassroomthismorning.
今朝赤い服を着る女の子は教室に本を読んでいました。
Sequence:Chinese:
(穿)(A)红衣的(B)女孩(C)今天早晨(D)在教室里(E)看(F)书(G)
Japanese:DBACEGF
English:CABFGED
第29页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六29Syntax(句法)islessarbitrarythanwords.Thehigher,thelessarbitrary聚合关系组合关系音素形素词素句素第30页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六30ArbitrarinessandConventionalityArbitrarinessmakeslanguagepotentiallycreative.Conventionalitymakeslanguagesystemofsignsaccepted,understoodbyacommunity.Forlearnersofaforeignlanguage,itistheconventionality(idioms.e.g.)thatisworthnoticingthanitsarbitrariness.
第31页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六31Argument:Islanguagearbitraryinnature?Structurallinguists(语言学家):Yes.Systemicfunctionalists(机能主义者)
andAmericanfunctionalists:Yesinthedistinctive(有特色的,与众不同的)
unitsofsounds,noatthesyntactic(句法的)
level.Cognitivelinguists:Iconicity(象似性)
ratherthanarbitrary第32页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六32Whatdidwedolasttime?GottoknowthecourseandsomelinguistsLearnedsomemythsandfundamentalviewsaboutlanguageDiscussedwhywestudylanguageLearnedwhatlanguageis:Languageisameansofverbal(口头的)communication.---Itisinstrumental,socialandconventional,sophisticated.Dealtwithdesignfeaturesoflanguage:Arbitrariness,duality,creativity,anddisplacement第33页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六333.2Duality(二重性)
Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization:Primaryunits(上层单位):‘words’(meaningful)Secondaryunits(下层单位):‘sounds’(meaningless(毫无意义的))Elements:unitsthatcanbedividedintofurtherelements
第34页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六34Hierarchy(分层)oflanguage:stratification(分层)
as‘theinfiniteuseoffinitemeans’.Sounds>syllables(音节)
>morphemes(形态素,词素)
>words>phrases>clauses>sentences/utterances>texts/discourses(论文)
utterance发声,表达;说话方式;语调;言论;意见;言辞第35页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六35AQuestionforyouManyanimalscommunicatewithspecialcalls,whichhavespecialmeanings.Butwesayanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothavethepropertyofduality.Canyouexplainthat?
A:Thepropertyofdualityonlyexistsinasystemwithbothelementsandunits.Theanimal’sspecialcallsmighthavecorrespondingmeanings,thatistheprimaryunitshavemeanings.Butsuchunitscannotbefurtherdividedintoelements.第36页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六36Anin-classtaskIllustrate(阐明)
thisstatementthattheadvantageofdualityliesintheproductivepowerourlanguageisendowedwith.endowwith赋予...A:Alargenumberofdifferentunitscanbeformedoutofasmallnumberofelements-forinstance,tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbeendlessnumberofsentences,whichinturncanformunlimitednumberoftexts.第37页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六373.3Creativity
Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness(递归性).Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.Why?Becauseofdualitythehumanspeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesapotentialtocreateaninfinitenumberofsentences.第38页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六38Anin-classtaskComeupwithsomeexamplestoillustratethecreativityoflanguage.
第39页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六39加字对联趣闻王羲之是晋代著名的书法大家,时人皆抢着去收藏他的墨迹,给他带来不少麻烦。每年除夕,他书写的春联一贴出来就会不翼而飞。于是,他想出一个办法:于某年除夕前数天,挥笔写下一副内容不吉利的春联:“福无重享;祸不单行”。然后把它贴于门上,人们看了,都不敢去剥它。到了除夕深夜,爆竹喧天迎新岁时,王羲之在春联上下各加3个字,成了一副内容相反的吉祥语:“福无重享今朝享;祸不单行昨夜行”第40页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六40清朝乾隆某日与纪晓岚外出郊游,看见花丛里的蝴蝶蹁跹飞舞,随口说:“两蝶逗”。纪晓岚以为乾隆出句要他对,立即答:“一鸥游。”乾隆才想起对联游戏,便有意为难纪晓岚说:“你答非所问,我讲的是‘两蝶豆’呀!”纪晓岚说:“皇上听错了,我对的是‘一瓯油’。”两人互相狡黠地笑起来。乾隆又说:“花间两蝶逗”。纪晓岚立即对:“水上一鸥游”。无论谐音、变字、加字,都难不住纪晓岚。乾隆说:“纪卿真乃天才!”纪晓岚说:“小臣谢皇上过奖!”
第41页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六41某日,两位对联爱好者约定互相对联句,并商议以加字对。甲说“遊远道”,并指明须用同一部首相对,否则算输。乙思量片刻即对道:“遇迷途。”甲说:“对得妙!”随即加两字在前变作“逍遥遊远道”。乙并不示弱,道:“邂逅遇迷途。”甲说:“果然了得,好!又加两字——逐迹逍遥遊远道。”乙深思一阵便答道:“逢迒邂逅遇迷途。”甲问:“‘迒’作何解?”乙道:“凡野兽走过的路叫‘迒’,喻荒郊野岭的去处。”甲说:“我从后面加字给你对——沐浴。”
乙道:“澄清。”甲说:“澄清浊浪污流。”
乙道:“沐浴汪洋瀚海”。他们来一个交换加字对,两人双赢,互相翘起拇指哈哈大笑,结束了这个颇有难度的文字游戏。第42页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六423.4Displacement
Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolize(表达)objects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Thus,wecanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover2550yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.第43页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六43Animalcommunicationisnormallyunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”.Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.Humanlanguageisstimulus-free.Whatwearetalkingaboutneednotbetriggeredbyanyexternalstimulusintheworldoranyinternalstate.
stimulus刺激物;激励物;促进因素
triggered触发的external外面的
internal内部的第44页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六44Thehoneybee'sdanceexhibitsdisplacementalittlebit:hecanrefertoasourceoffood,whichisremoteintimeandspacewhenhereportsonit.Adogcannottellpeoplethatitsmasterwillbehomeinafewdays.Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.honeybee蜜蜂remote微小的,轻微的第45页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六45Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingusthepowertohandlegeneralizations(普通化)
andabstractions(抽象化).Oncewecantalkaboutphysicallydistantthing,weacquiretheabilitytounderstandconceptswhichdenote(为...的名称)“non-things”,suchastruthandbeauty.第46页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六464.Originoflanguage
The‘Divine’(神的)
origin:“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”“词是世界之源,词与主同在,词就是主。”
(Gospel,John1:1)
福音书,约翰第47页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六47“AndtheLordsaid,Behold,thepeopleisone,andtheyhaveallonelanguage;andthistheybegintodo;andnownothingwillberestrainedfromthem,whichtheyhaveimaginedtodo.”(Genesis,11:6)---Thesepiecesofscriptureseemtosuggestsomemysteriousoriginofthelanguage.第48页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六48Today,thepeopleoftheworldusemorethan6,000differentlanguagesandinnumerable(无数的)
dialects.Howistheunitygone?
ThetowerofBabel通天塔第49页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六49Thewholeearthhadonelanguageandwasofonespeech.Astheymigrated(迁移)fromtheeast,ithappenedthattheyfoundaplaininthelandofShinar,andtheysettledthere.Theysaidonetoanother,'Come,let'smakebricks,andbakethemthoroughly.'
(Genesis11:1-3)第50页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六50第51页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六51
Yahwehcamedowntoseethecityandthetowerwhichthesonsofmankindwerebuilding.第52页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六52第53页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六53第54页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六54第55页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六55
FromthereYahwehscattered(分撒)themabroadacrossthefaceoftheearth.第56页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六56Andtheystoppedbuildingthecity.第57页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六57Thatiswhyit'swascalledBabel,becausethereYahwehconfusedthelanguageofalltheearth.Fromthere,Yahwehscatteredthemabroadacrossfaceoftheearth.第58页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六584.1The“bow-wow”theory啵喔理论Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Onomatopoeic(拟声的)
wordsseemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Buttheyareverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpresswiththenaturalsounds.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence.
第59页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六594.2The“pooh-pooh”theory噗噗理论Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutter(说)
instinctive(本能的)
soundsofpain,angerandjoy.Asforevidence,wecanonlycitetheuniversaluseofsoundsasinterjections(感叹词).Whatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.Besides,interjectionssuchasOh,Ah,Oopsbearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearenotgoodevidence.第60页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六604.3The“yo-he-ho”theory哟嗨哟理论Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmic(有节奏的)
grunts(咕哝着说)
whichgraduallydevelopedintochants(吟颂,咏诗)
andthenintolanguage.Wedohaveprosodic(作诗法的)
useofrhythmsinlanguages,butrhythmicgruntsarefardifferentfromlanguageinitspresentsense.Thetheoryisagainatmostaspeculation.第61页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六61Theby-now(到如今)
fruitless(没有成果的)
searchfortheoriginoflanguagesreflectspeople'sconcernwiththeoriginofhumanityandmaycomeupwithenlighteningfindingsinfuture.enlighten启发,开导Onethingwecansayforcertainisthatlanguageevolves(演变,进化)
withinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontexts.第62页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六625.Functionsoflanguage
Linguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.
condemn谴责,责备;处刑;宣布...不能使用Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.第63页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六63ForJakobson,languageisaboveallforcommunication.Whileformanypeople,thepurposeofcommunicationisreferential(指代的),forhim(andthePragueschoolstructuralists布拉格结构主义派学者),referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication.
第64页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六64sixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely(即,也就是):Speaker发话人,addressee受话人,context语境,message信息,code语码,contact接触.Inconjunctionwiththese,Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframework(构架,结构)
oflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:第65页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六65Referential所指功能
(toconveymessageandinformation),Poetic
诗歌功能(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake),Emotive感情功能
(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions),Conative意动功能
(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests),Phatic寒暄功能
(toestablishcommunionwithothers)Metalingual元语言功能
(toclearupintentionsandmeanings).第66页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六66第67页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六67Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage(元语言功能),thatis,languagehasideational概念,interpersonal
人际andtextual
语篇functions.Ierpersonalfunctionenactssocialrelationships.Textualfunctioncreatesrelevance(关联)tocontext.第68页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六68Inhisearlierworks,Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment:Instrumental工具功能Regulatory控制功能Representational表达功能Interactional互动功能Personal自指性功能Heuristic教导功能Imaginative想象功能第69页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六69Stillotherclassificationsemploy(使用)differentcategoriesandusedifferentterms,butallsharealotincommonaboutthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.Belowisasummaryofthemajorfunctionsoflanguage.第70页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六705.1Informative
function信息功能Languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenfeelneedtospeaktheirthoughtsaloud.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaprerequisite(前提,先决条件)
ofsocialdevelopment.Theinformativefunctionisindeedacrucial(决定性的,紧要关头的)
functionoflanguage.
Itisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.
第71页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六71Hallidaynotesthat“Languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:thatis,ofthespeaker'sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness....Inservingthisfunction,languagealsogivesstructuretoexperience,andhelpstodetermineourwayoflookingatthings,sothatitrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous”.第72页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六725.2Interpersonalfunction
人际功能Byfarthemostimportantsociological(社会学的)
useoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Intheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar,theinterpersonalfunctionisconcernedwithinteractionbetweentheaddresserandaddresseeinthediscoursesituationandtheaddresser'sattitudetowardwhathespeaksorwritesabout.
第73页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六73Forexample,thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(e.g.DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.第74页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六74Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionisitsfunctionofexpressingidentity.Forexample,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch,theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings,thestage-managedaudiencereactionstoTVgameshowsTheyallsignalwhoweareandwherewebelong.
第75页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六75Languagemarksouridentity,physicallyintermsofage,sex,andvoiceprints;psychologicallyintermsoflanguage,personalityandintelligence;geographicallyintermsofaccentsanddialects;ethnicallyandsociallyintermsofsocialstratification(分层),class,status,role,solidarity(团结)
anddistance.第76页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六76Theinterpersonalfunctionissuchabroadcategorythatitisoftendiscussedundervariousothertermsasinthefollowingperformative,emotive,expressiveandphaticfunctionsoflanguage.Theyseemtoemphasizedifferentaspectsoftheinterpersonalfunction.第77页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六775.3Performativefunction施为功能ThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-bone(骨干)
ofpragmatics(Chapter8).Forexample,Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Ibetyoutwopoundsitwillraintomorrow.第78页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六78Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencing(宣判)
ofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized程序化.第79页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六79
Forexample,inChinesewhen
someonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosay岁岁平安asameansofcontrollingtheinvisibleforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlivesadversely(反对地).Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.第80页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六805.4Emotivefunction情感功能Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress,e.g.swearwords诅咒,obscenities说脏话,involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery;conventionalwords/phrases,e.g.God,My,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Oh.第81页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六81Itisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.Forexample,amanmaysayOuch!(哎呦)
afterstriking(显著的)
afingernailwithahammer,orhemaymutter(小声抱怨)
Damnwhenrealizingthathehasforgottenanappointment.第82页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六82Exclamations(呼喊,惊叫)
suchasMan!Ohboy!andHurrah!(好哇)
areusuallyutteredwithoutanypurposeofcommunicatingtoothers,butasessentiallyaverbalresponsetoaperson'sownfeelings.Suchexpressiveutterancescanalsobeacommunal(社会的)
responseofagroupofpeoplewhoreinforce(增强,加强)
oneanother'sexpressiveuseoflanguagetoshowtheirsolidarity(团结).第83页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六835.5Phaticcommunion寒暄功能
Phaticcommunionreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage,originatingfromMalinowski'sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Forexample,Mrs.Psneezesviolently.
Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Mrs.P:Thankyou.第84页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六84Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.Ritual(仪式)
exchangesabouthealthorweathersuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Nicedayoftenstatetheobvious.Yettheyindicatethatachannel(渠道,途径)
ofcommunicationisopenifitshouldbeneeded.第85页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六85Differentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticcommunion.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotauniversalconversationfillerastheEnglishmightliketothink.Rundiwomen(inBurundi,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinely(常规地)
andpolitelysay“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”
第86页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六86Broadlyspeaking,thisfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslang,jokes,jargons(行话,黑话,隐语),ritualistic(仪式的,惯例的)
exchanges,switchesto(切换到)
socialandregionaldialects.Wehavetolearnalargerepertoire(全部节目)
ofsuchusagesifwearetointeractcomfortablywithdifferentpeople.第87页,共108页,2022年,5月20日,13点39分,星期六875.6Recreationalfunction
娱乐功能Therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedly(据认为)
solimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.
第88页,共108页,2022年,5月20
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