新编简明英语语言学教程第7章LanguageChange课件

Chapter7

LanguageChangeLecturer:YoungSmithChapter7

LanguageChangeLect7.1IntrodutionThenature:Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal(普遍的),continuous(持续的)and,toaconsiderabledegree,regular(规则的)andsystematic(系统的).7.1IntrodutionAlllanguageschangewithtimeLanguageislikealivingorganism,itmaychangeandgrow,butratherslowly1、Sound(Phonological)change语音变化2、Morphologicalandsynatcticchange形态变化和句法变化3、Lexicalandsemanticchange词法和语义变化Alllanguageschangewithtime新编简明英语语言学教程第7章LanguageChange课件“Prologue(序言)totheCanterburyTales坎(特伯雷故事集)byChaucer乔叟(Englishpoet,1340-1400)(1)Aknyghttherwasandthataworhyman,ThatfrothetymethathefirstbiganToridenout,helovedchivalrie,Troutheandhonour,fredomandcurteisie

AknighttherewasandthataworthymanThatfromthetimethathefirstbeganTorideour,helovedchivalry(骑士气概),Truthandhonour,freedomandcourtesy.(2)WhanthatAprillewithhisshouressooth

WhenthatAprilwithhisshowerssweet…“Prologue(序言)totheCanterburyHamletfromShakespeare(1564-1616)King:WhereisPeloniusHamlet:Inheaven,sendthither(there)tosee.Ifyourmessenger(can’t)findhimnotthere,seekhimI’(at)theotherplaceyourself.Butindeed,ifyoufindhimnotwithinthismonth,youshallnose(notice)himasyouupthestairsintothelobby.HamletfromShakespeare(1564-Languagechangesoccurduringthe1500yearsofEnglishhistoryChangescanbefoundinallpartsofgrammar:phonology,morphology,syntax,lexicon,semanticitemsLanguagechangesoccurduring1500-yearhistoryofEnglishOldEnglish[450---1100A.D]justasdifficultasanotherlanguage,unintelligibleMiddleEnglish

[1300—1400]morelikemodernEnglish(Chaucer’stime),needspecialinstructionEarlyModernEnglish

[1500—1600]

(Shakespeare’stime)needhelp,wordorder,meaningsModernEnglish[1700---1900]ContemporaryEnglish

[thepast50years](TheEncyclopediaBritannicaYearbook:alistofwordsthathaveenteredthelanguageduringtheyear)1500-yearhistoryofEnglishOl7.2Phonological(Sound)changeOldEnglish

ModernEnglish[ā](arm)stānstonehāmhomewrātwroterādrode7.2Phonological(Sound)changMiddleEnglish

ModernEnglish

[mi:s][mais]mice[mu:s][maus]mouse[br:k][brk]brokeMiddleEnglishModernEnConclusions:Soundchangeissystematic:aregularpatternofpronunciationchangesDramaticvowelchangestookplaceinbotholdEnglishandmiddleEnglishConclusions:7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.1Additionofaffixes-ment(Frenchorigin)Accomplishment(Frenchword)Acknowledgement(Englishorigin)FushionAtypeofgrammaticalizationinwhichwordsdevelopintoaffixes,eitherprefixesorsuffixes.7.3MorphologicalandsyntactiWifmann(womanwasmasculine)Wif(neuter)7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.2LossofaffixesWifmann(womanwasmasculinSOVSVO7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.3changeofwordorderSOV7.3MorphologicalIlovetheenot.Hesawyounot.Idon’tloveyou.Hedidn’tseeyou.7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.4ChangeinNegationRuleIlovetheenot.7.3Morphologi7.4LexicalandSemanticChangeAdditionofnewwordsLossofwordsChangesinthemeaningofwords7.4LexicalandSemanticChang7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsDerivation派生:themostcommonword-formationprocess,byaffixationeg.Derivational+freemorphemesgirlish;reliable;glorificationinsurmountable7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsDerCompounding复合

(stringingwordstogether;juxtapositionoftwoormorethantwowordstoformanew,compositeonewithdistinctpropertiesofitsown)

Adj.N.V.Prep.Adj.BittersweetclearwaywhitewashblackoutN.Headstrongrainbowspoon-feedhead-onV.CarryallpickpocketsleepwalkcutupPrep.Inbornoff-licenceundertakewithoutHarddiskmousematbarcodefat-freeInformationhighwayfollow-upfull-lengthBitter-sweetget-rich-quick7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsCompounding复合(stringingwordsCoinage

创新构词(inventionoftotallynewterms,leastcommon,oftenbrandnames)eg.xerox;nylon;kleenex(面巾纸)walkman;Kodak;Ford7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsCoinage创新构词(inventionoftota

Clipping缩略构词/clippedwords(areductionprocessinwhichawordofmorethanonesyllableisreducedtoashorterform/abbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases;oftenusedininformalspeech)Eg.ad---advertisement;lab---laboratoryfan---fanatic;flu---influenza;math---mathematics;gym—gymnasiumexpo---exposition;memo---memorandumdisco---discotheque;burger---hamburgerdozer---bulldozer;quake---earthquakefridge---refrigerator;script---prescription7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsClipping缩略构词/clippedwordsBlending混合构词

(jointhebeginningofthefirstwordtotheendoftheotherwords)Eg.smog(smoke+fog)brunch(breakfast+lunch)motel(motor+hotel)telecast(television+broadcast)camcorder(camera+recorder)comsat(communication+satellite)videophone(video+telephone)7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBlending混合构词(jointhebeginniAcronym首字构词

(stringtogethertheinitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,typicallythenamesoftechnicalapparatusandinstitutions,sometimes,thephrasaloriginislost)Eg.radar(radiodetectingandranging)AIDS(acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome)SARS(SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome)APEC(Asia-PacificEconomicCooperation)UNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)

CBS(ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem)ISBN(InternationalStandardBookNumber)IT(informationTechnology);CAD(computerassisteddesign)WTO(WorldTradeOrganization)

7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsAcronym首字构词(stringtogethertBackformation

反向构词(areverseprocessofaffixation.Thewordisnotformedbyaddingamorphemetoastembutbyassumingapartofthestemasasuffixandremovingit/subtractinganaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword)Eg.editor---edit;beggar---begtelevision–televise;enthusiasm---enthusehawk---hawker;baby-sit----baby-sitterbutch---butcher7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBackformation反向构词(areversepConversion/functionalshift

转类构词(achangeinthegrammaticalfunctionofawordwithoutaddingorremovinganypartofit/shiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithoutadditionofaffixes)Eg.[N.—V.]

awalk---towalk;aplay---toplayincrease---toincrease;conduct---conduct[V.---N.]tohold---ahold;toflyby---aflyby;toreject---areject

[adj.---V.]

cool---tocool;narrow---tonarrow;dim---todim;slow---toslow

[adj.---N.]daily---adaily;Christian---aChristianrich---therich;impossible---theimpossibleIhavenoknowledgeofthepoliticaldosanddon’ts7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsConversion/functionalshiftBorrowing外来语构词(adoptingforeignwords)

---

loan-words借词(retainingtheiroriginalphoneticorevenwrittenforms,labelanewconcept,replaceorbecomeasynonymofanativeword)eg.bungalow(Hindi);spaghetti(Italian);veranda(Portuguese阳台)

---loan-translationorcalques

(直译,译借)仿造词(adirecttranslationoftheforeignwordintoEnglish)eg.Kongfu(Chinese)pp.100—101formorewords7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBorrowing外来语构词(adoptingforeiConclusionsFoodandcookingwordsinMiddleEnglish(borrowedfromFrench);eg.salmon,appetite,dinner,supper,beefpork,sardine,muttonTechniquesandfoodwordsimportedinlaterborrowings;eg.crème,sautee,bouillon,consommeNotallloanwordsbecomeimmediatelyassimilatedintoalanguage,esp.technicaltermsEg.fungus---fungi;memorandum---memorandanebula---nebulae;radiu----radiiConclusionsFoodandcookingwo7.4.2LossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageoverthecourseofseveralgenerations,becauseofdiscontinuationoftheobjecttheynameEg.RomeoandJulietbyShakespeare

beseem---tobesuitable

wot---toknow

gyve---afetter

wherefore---whyEg.soapflakes;washboard;rumbleseat7.4.2LossofwordsWordscanb7.4.3SemanticChangesWordsmayshiftinmeaningSemanticchanges:widening,narrowing,shiftinmeaning7.4.3SemanticChangesWordsmaWideningofmeaning:meaningofawordbecomesbroader

Eg.holiday[holyday:adayofreligioussignificance]–{anydayonwhichwedon’thavetowork}Eg.tail[thetailofahorse]----{thetailofanyanimal}Epanion[apersonwithwhomyoushredbread]–{apersonwhoaccompaniesyou}Eg.quarantine[fortydays’isolation]---{aconditionofenforcedisolation}Eg.bird[youngbird]---norestrictionEg.sail[boatwithsails]---norestrictionConclusion:

[specific]-----[general]

SemanticbroadeningWideningofmeaning:meaningoNarrowingofmeaning:meaningofawordisnarrowedtowhatitisnowEg.hound[dog]---{aspecialkindofdog}Eg.girl[youngpersonofeithersex]---{youngpeopleoffemalesex}Eg.deer[anyanimal]---{aparticularkindofanimal}Eg.meat[food]---{ediblepartofananimal}Eg.corn[grain]---{aparticulargrain}Conclusion:

[general]---{specific}7.4.3semanticnarrowingNarrowingofmeaning:meaningMeaningshiftEg.inn[oldsmallhotelorpub]---

{well-knownnicehotel}Eg.nice[ignorant]---{good}Eg.lust[pleasure]---{Intenseorunrestrainedsexualcraving}Eg.immoral[notcustomary]---{Contrarytoestablishedmoralprinciples}Eg.silly[happy]---(naïve)---{foolish}Conclusion:meaningmaybeelevated(抬升)ordegraded(降格)SemanticshiftMeaningshiftSemanticshift7.5Somerecenttrends1MovingtowardsgreaterinformalityEg.ain’t,don’t,can’t;it’sme;whodidyousee?BusnoticeinLondon{Pleasedonotspeaktothedriverwhileheisdriving}

[Passengersarerequirednottocommunicatewiththedriverwhilethevehicleisinmotion.]7.5Somerecenttrends1Moving2.TheinfulenceofAmericanEnglishEg.petrol(BE)–gasoline(AE)autumn(BE)---fall(AE)lift(BE)---elevator(AE)pavement(BE)---sidewalk(AE)teenager(AE)commuter(AE)toupdate(AE)–tobringuptodatetohost(AE)---tobehostattocheckup(AE)---tocheckConclusion:AmericanEnglishhasastronginfluenceuponBritishEnglishbymovies,newspapers,magazines,radios,television7.5Somerecenttrends2.TheinfulenceofAmericanE3.theinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyNewwordsarecoinedtoexpressnewconcepts,newtechniquesandnewinventionsSpacetraveleg.spacesuit;splash-downComputerandinternetlanguageeg.inputEcologyeg.ecocidepp.105—106formorewordsConclusion:ScienceandtechnologyhasastronginfluenceuponEnglish7.5Somerecenttrends3.theinfluenceofsciencean7.6TheCausesforlanguagechangeWhy:Grammaticalrulesmayseemverystrict,buttherulesdopermitslightvariationsthatdonotmakeagreatdealofdifferenceinmeaning,whenvariationsofgrammar,vocabulary,andpronunciationaccumulatethroughthecenturies,languageswithinasinglelanguagefamilybecomequitedifferentfromoneanother7.6TheCausesforlanguagechRapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyleadstonewwordsEg.bullettrain,fax,laserprinter,eurostar,hovercraft,CD-ROM,laptop,telecom,DVD,e-mail,cybernautCausesforlanguagechangeRapiddevelopmentofscienceaSocialandpoliticalchangesandpoliticalneedsEg.shuttlediplomacy,mini-summit,junglewar,Euro,hotline,DVD,eyephone,e-mail,bi-media,goldenweekCausesforlanguagechangeSocialandpoliticalchangesaMoreneutraljobtitlesduetofeminismEg.chairman---chairpersonforeman---supervisorpoliceman---policeofficerfireman---firefighterjuryforeman---juryforepersonCausesforlanguagechangeMoreneutraljobtitlesduetoThewaychildrenacquirethelanguagelanguageusedbychildrenshowsstagesinthedevelopmentoftheirgrammar;Certainrulesmaybesimplifiedorover-generalizedwhenchildrenapproximategrammarusedbyadultsEg.It’sI.-------It’sme.CausesforlanguagechangeThewaychildrenacquirethelGrammarsimplificationduetoeconomyofmemoryorlinguisticlazinessortheoryofleasteffort:

analogicchangeinternalborrowing:weborrowfromonepartofthegrammarandapplytherulegenerallyEg.foe---foes;dog–dogs;cow---cows[kine]

regularizationofexceptionalpluralformsEg.agendum---agenda---agendumscurriculum---curricula---curriculumsdwarf---dwarves----dwarfsEg.patwantedtobuyacheapcar.---Cathygotitcheap.[cheaply]CausesforlanguagechangeGrammarsimplificationduetoElaborationorcomplicationofgrammar:ifaparticulargrammaticalfeatureislost,somefeaturemaybeaddedinanothercomponentofthegrammarEg.inflectionalendings---strictword-orderconstraintswho---whomgreatersimplification---bemoreintelligibleblack---blacken(causativeverbfromadj,)---causetobeblackCausesforlanguagechangeElaborationorcomplicationofSummaryNosinglecauseoflanguagechange,Lexicaladdition,borrowing,simplificationofgrammar,elaborationLinguisticchangeiscomplexratherthansimpletodescribe,needfurtherinvestigationSummaryNosinglecauseoflangChapter7

LanguageChangeLecturer:YoungSmithChapter7

LanguageChangeLect7.1IntrodutionThenature:Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal(普遍的),continuous(持续的)and,toaconsiderabledegree,regular(规则的)andsystematic(系统的).7.1IntrodutionAlllanguageschangewithtimeLanguageislikealivingorganism,itmaychangeandgrow,butratherslowly1、Sound(Phonological)change语音变化2、Morphologicalandsynatcticchange形态变化和句法变化3、Lexicalandsemanticchange词法和语义变化Alllanguageschangewithtime新编简明英语语言学教程第7章LanguageChange课件“Prologue(序言)totheCanterburyTales坎(特伯雷故事集)byChaucer乔叟(Englishpoet,1340-1400)(1)Aknyghttherwasandthataworhyman,ThatfrothetymethathefirstbiganToridenout,helovedchivalrie,Troutheandhonour,fredomandcurteisie

AknighttherewasandthataworthymanThatfromthetimethathefirstbeganTorideour,helovedchivalry(骑士气概),Truthandhonour,freedomandcourtesy.(2)WhanthatAprillewithhisshouressooth

WhenthatAprilwithhisshowerssweet…“Prologue(序言)totheCanterburyHamletfromShakespeare(1564-1616)King:WhereisPeloniusHamlet:Inheaven,sendthither(there)tosee.Ifyourmessenger(can’t)findhimnotthere,seekhimI’(at)theotherplaceyourself.Butindeed,ifyoufindhimnotwithinthismonth,youshallnose(notice)himasyouupthestairsintothelobby.HamletfromShakespeare(1564-Languagechangesoccurduringthe1500yearsofEnglishhistoryChangescanbefoundinallpartsofgrammar:phonology,morphology,syntax,lexicon,semanticitemsLanguagechangesoccurduring1500-yearhistoryofEnglishOldEnglish[450---1100A.D]justasdifficultasanotherlanguage,unintelligibleMiddleEnglish

[1300—1400]morelikemodernEnglish(Chaucer’stime),needspecialinstructionEarlyModernEnglish

[1500—1600]

(Shakespeare’stime)needhelp,wordorder,meaningsModernEnglish[1700---1900]ContemporaryEnglish

[thepast50years](TheEncyclopediaBritannicaYearbook:alistofwordsthathaveenteredthelanguageduringtheyear)1500-yearhistoryofEnglishOl7.2Phonological(Sound)changeOldEnglish

ModernEnglish[ā](arm)stānstonehāmhomewrātwroterādrode7.2Phonological(Sound)changMiddleEnglish

ModernEnglish

[mi:s][mais]mice[mu:s][maus]mouse[br:k][brk]brokeMiddleEnglishModernEnConclusions:Soundchangeissystematic:aregularpatternofpronunciationchangesDramaticvowelchangestookplaceinbotholdEnglishandmiddleEnglishConclusions:7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.1Additionofaffixes-ment(Frenchorigin)Accomplishment(Frenchword)Acknowledgement(Englishorigin)FushionAtypeofgrammaticalizationinwhichwordsdevelopintoaffixes,eitherprefixesorsuffixes.7.3MorphologicalandsyntactiWifmann(womanwasmasculine)Wif(neuter)7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.2LossofaffixesWifmann(womanwasmasculinSOVSVO7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.3changeofwordorderSOV7.3MorphologicalIlovetheenot.Hesawyounot.Idon’tloveyou.Hedidn’tseeyou.7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

7.3.4ChangeinNegationRuleIlovetheenot.7.3Morphologi7.4LexicalandSemanticChangeAdditionofnewwordsLossofwordsChangesinthemeaningofwords7.4LexicalandSemanticChang7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsDerivation派生:themostcommonword-formationprocess,byaffixationeg.Derivational+freemorphemesgirlish;reliable;glorificationinsurmountable7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsDerCompounding复合

(stringingwordstogether;juxtapositionoftwoormorethantwowordstoformanew,compositeonewithdistinctpropertiesofitsown)

Adj.N.V.Prep.Adj.BittersweetclearwaywhitewashblackoutN.Headstrongrainbowspoon-feedhead-onV.CarryallpickpocketsleepwalkcutupPrep.Inbornoff-licenceundertakewithoutHarddiskmousematbarcodefat-freeInformationhighwayfollow-upfull-lengthBitter-sweetget-rich-quick7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsCompounding复合(stringingwordsCoinage

创新构词(inventionoftotallynewterms,leastcommon,oftenbrandnames)eg.xerox;nylon;kleenex(面巾纸)walkman;Kodak;Ford7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsCoinage创新构词(inventionoftota

Clipping缩略构词/clippedwords(areductionprocessinwhichawordofmorethanonesyllableisreducedtoashorterform/abbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases;oftenusedininformalspeech)Eg.ad---advertisement;lab---laboratoryfan---fanatic;flu---influenza;math---mathematics;gym—gymnasiumexpo---exposition;memo---memorandumdisco---discotheque;burger---hamburgerdozer---bulldozer;quake---earthquakefridge---refrigerator;script---prescription7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsClipping缩略构词/clippedwordsBlending混合构词

(jointhebeginningofthefirstwordtotheendoftheotherwords)Eg.smog(smoke+fog)brunch(breakfast+lunch)motel(motor+hotel)telecast(television+broadcast)camcorder(camera+recorder)comsat(communication+satellite)videophone(video+telephone)7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBlending混合构词(jointhebeginniAcronym首字构词

(stringtogethertheinitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,typicallythenamesoftechnicalapparatusandinstitutions,sometimes,thephrasaloriginislost)Eg.radar(radiodetectingandranging)AIDS(acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome)SARS(SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome)APEC(Asia-PacificEconomicCooperation)UNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)

CBS(ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem)ISBN(InternationalStandardBookNumber)IT(informationTechnology);CAD(computerassisteddesign)WTO(WorldTradeOrganization)

7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsAcronym首字构词(stringtogethertBackformation

反向构词(areverseprocessofaffixation.Thewordisnotformedbyaddingamorphemetoastembutbyassumingapartofthestemasasuffixandremovingit/subtractinganaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword)Eg.editor---edit;beggar---begtelevision–televise;enthusiasm---enthusehawk---hawker;baby-sit----baby-sitterbutch---butcher7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBackformation反向构词(areversepConversion/functionalshift

转类构词(achangeinthegrammaticalfunctionofawordwithoutaddingorremovinganypartofit/shiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithoutadditionofaffixes)Eg.[N.—V.]

awalk---towalk;aplay---toplayincrease---toincrease;conduct---conduct[V.---N.]tohold---ahold;toflyby---aflyby;toreject---areject

[adj.---V.]

cool---tocool;narrow---tonarrow;dim---todim;slow---toslow

[adj.---N.]daily---adaily;Christian---aChristianrich---therich;impossible---theimpossibleIhavenoknowledgeofthepoliticaldosanddon’ts7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsConversion/functionalshiftBorrowing外来语构词(adoptingforeignwords)

---

loan-words借词(retainingtheiroriginalphoneticorevenwrittenforms,labelanewconcept,replaceorbecomeasynonymofanativeword)eg.bungalow(Hindi);spaghetti(Italian);veranda(Portuguese阳台)

---loan-translationorcalques

(直译,译借)仿造词(adirecttranslationoftheforeignwordintoEnglish)eg.Kongfu(Chinese)pp.100—101formorewords7.4.1AdditionofnewwordsBorrowing外来语构词(adoptingforeiConclusionsFoodandcookingwordsinMiddleEnglish(borrowedfromFrench);eg.salmon,appetite,dinner,supper,beefpork,sardine,muttonTechniquesandfoodwordsimportedinlaterborrowings;eg.crème,sautee,bouillon,consommeNotallloanwordsbecomeimmediatelyassimilatedintoalanguage,esp.technicaltermsEg.fungus---fungi;memorandum---memorandanebula---nebulae;radiu----radiiConclusionsFoodandcookingwo7.4.2LossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageoverthecourseofseveralgenerations,becauseofdiscontinuationoftheobjecttheynameEg.RomeoandJulietbyShakespeare

beseem---tobesuitable

wot---toknow

gyve---afetter

wherefore---whyEg.soapflakes;washboard;rumbleseat7.4.2LossofwordsWordscanb7.4.3SemanticChangesWordsmayshiftinmeaningSemanticchanges:widening,narrowing,shiftinmeaning7.4.3SemanticChangesWordsmaWideningofmeaning:meaningofawordbecomesbroader

Eg.holiday[holyday:adayofreligioussignificance]–{anydayonwhichwedon’thavetowork}Eg.tail[thetailofahorse]----{thetailofanyanimal}Epanion[apersonwithwhomyoushredbread]–{apersonwhoaccompaniesyou}Eg.quarantine[fortydays’isolation]---{aconditionofenforcedisolation}Eg.bird[youngbird]---norestrictionEg.sail[boatwithsails]---norestrictionConclusion:

[specific]-----[general]

SemanticbroadeningWideningofmeaning:meaningoNarrowingofmeaning:meaningofawordisnarrowedtowhatitisnowEg.hound[dog]---{aspecialkindofdog}Eg.girl[youngpersonofeithersex]---{youngpeopleoffemalesex}Eg.deer[anyanimal]---{aparticularkindofanimal}Eg.meat[food]---{ediblepartofananimal}Eg.corn[grain]---{aparticulargrain}Conclusion:

[general]---{specific}7.4.3semanticnarrowingNarrowingofmeaning:meaningMeaningshiftEg.inn[oldsmallhotelorpub]---

{well-knownnicehotel}Eg.nice[ignorant]---{good}Eg.lust[pleasure]---{Intenseorunrestrainedsexualcraving}Eg.immoral[notcustomary]---{Contrarytoestablishedmoralprinciples}Eg.silly[happy]---(naïve)---{foolish}Conclusion:meaningmaybeelevated(抬升)ordegraded(降格)SemanticshiftMeaningshiftSemanticshift7.5Somerecenttrends1MovingtowardsgreaterinformalityEg.ain’t,don’t,can’t;it’sme;whodidyousee?BusnoticeinLondon{Pleasedonotspeaktothedriverwhileheisdriving}

[Passengersarerequirednottocommunicatewiththedriverwhilethevehicleisinmotion.]7.5Somerecenttrends1Moving2.TheinfulenceofAmericanEnglishEg.petrol(BE)–gasoline(AE)autumn(BE)---fall(AE)lift(BE)---elevator(AE)pavement(BE)---sidewalk(AE)teenager(AE)commuter(AE)toupdate(AE)–tobringuptodatetohost(AE)---tobehostattocheckup(AE)---tocheckConclusion:AmericanEnglishhasastronginfluenceuponBritishEnglishbymovies,newspapers,magazines,radios,television7.5Somerecenttrends2.TheinfulenceofAmericanE3.theinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyNewwordsarecoinedtoexpr