2000-2012年考研英语真题无答案打印版

2012年考研英语试题SectionIUseofEnglishDirections:Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissuerecently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat_3_thecourt'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartialjudgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself_6_tothecodeofconductthat_7_totherestofthefederaljudiciary.Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla_9_betweenthecourtandpolitics.TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_1l_theywouldbefreeto_12_thoseinpowerandhavenoneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely_14_.Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17_asunjust.Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymakingthemselves_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparatefrompoliticsand,_20_,convincingaslaw.|A|emphasize|B]maintain|C]modify|D]recognize|A]when[B]lest|C|before|D]unless[AJrestored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated[AJchallenged[BJcompromised[CJsuspected[D]accepted[A]advanced[B]caught[C]bound[D]founded[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone|A|resorts[BJsticks[C|loads[D(applies[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle[AJline[B]barrier[CJsimilarity[DJconflict[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards[A]so[BJsince[C]provided[D]though[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace[A]confirm[B]express[Clcultivate[D]offer|A|guarded|B(followed[C]studied[DJtiedIA(concepts[B(theories[C]divisions|D(conceptions[A]excludes[B]questions[C]shapes[D]controls[AJdismissed[B]released[C]ranked[DJdistorted[A]suppress[B]exploit[C]address[D]ignore[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable|A|byallmesns(B|atallcosts[C]inaword|D]asaresultSectionIIReadingComprehensionPartADirections:Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)Text1Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblytheword.Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocialcureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.^^Daretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!',pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegativeones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It'sliketheteacherwhobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesasasupplementtothesocialcureastimulustogroupdynamicsanobstacletoschoolprogress[D|acauseofundesirablebehaviorsRosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshouldrecruitprofessionaladvertiserslearnfromadvertisers'experiencestayawayfromcommercialadvertisersrecognizethelimitationsofadvertisementsIntheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors|B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding[DJproducealong-lastingsocialeffectParagraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviorsisharmfultoournetworksoffriendswillmisleadbehavioralstudiesoccurswithoutourrealizingitcanproducenegativehealthhabitsTheauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureisharmfuldesirableprofound|D|questionableText2Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,amajorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestrictnuclearregulations.Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont'srulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It'sastunningmove.Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationboughtVermont'sonlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextensionoftheplant'slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.Then,too,thecompanywentalong.EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn'tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy'smanagement-especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension.Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth.Thephrase“renegingon"(Line3.para.1)isclosestinmeaningto|A|condemning.[B]reaffirming.|C]dishonoring.|D|securing.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,EntergyintendedtoobtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.[D|getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithitsmanagerialpractices.technicalinnovativeness.financialgoals.[DIbusinessvisionIntheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltestIA]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.thematureofstates'patchworkregulations.thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.thelimitsofstates,powerovernuclearissues.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat[A|Entergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.|B|theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.Vermont'sreputationmightbedamaged.Text3Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,andself-deceptionabound.Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similartonewlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibilityprocess,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthecommunity,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividuafsdiscoveryclaimintothecommunity'scrediblediscovery.Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendstofocusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequentlyprovokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyioncedescribeddiscoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought.^^Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.Intheend,credibility“happens“toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind."Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother,sreasoningandeachother'sconceptionsofreason.^^Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyitsuncertaintyandcomplexity.misconceptionanddeceptiveness.logicalityandobjectivity.|D|systematicnessandregularity.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires[A]strictinspection.[B]sharedefforts.[C]individualwisdom.IDJpersistentinnovation..Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists..AlbertSzent-GyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethatIA|scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.[BJdiscoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.[D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?[A|NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.Text4IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivilservant.WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmericangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009thenumberofunionistsinAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions'thriving.First,theycanshutthingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolledbyunions.Theteachers'unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly“backloaded“public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers'unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofcultureinWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers'fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemfbrAmerica.ItcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthatIA]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?IA]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.|B|Educationisrequiredfbrpublic-sectorunionmembership.[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.[DJPublic-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris[A]illegallysecured.|B|indirectlyaugmented.[C]excessivelyincreased.[DJfairlyadjusted.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.[D|aredominantinthegovernment.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof[A]disapproval.[B]appreciation.[C]tolerance.[D]indifference.PartBDirections:Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.(45)Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof“stickiness”-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.IA]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.Applicationslike/r/,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.[G|Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.PartCDirections:ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YburtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksatheoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itisbecominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggestedthathumansarebomwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraintsGrayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky'sgrammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversalsSectionIIIWritingPartADirections:Someinternationalsstudentsarecomingtoyouruniversity.WritethemanemailinthenameoftheStudents'Uniontoextendyourwelcomeandprovidesomesuggestionsfortheircampuslifehere.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.Use“LiMingMinstead.Donotwritetheaddress(10points)PartBDirections:writeanessayof160-200wordsbas