现代语言学自考本科00830课件

1、Modern Linguistics作者：睿智婉心Modern Linguistics作者：睿智婉心Table of ContentChapter 1Introduction Chapter 6PragmaticsChapter 2PhonologyChapter 7Historical LinguisticsChapter 3MorphologyChapter 8SociolinguisticsChapter 4syntaxChapter 9PsycholinguisticsChapter 5SemanticsChapter 10Language AcquisitionTable of Co

2、ntentChapter 1IntroChapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 11What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.Chapter 11What is linguisticChapter 11The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is

3、 often called general linguistics.普通语言学The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.语音学The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 音系学The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morp

4、hology. 形态学The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 句法学The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 语义学The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 语用学The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. 社会

5、语言学The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. 语言心理学The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic princi

6、ples and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）Chapter 11The scop

7、e of linguChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive and descriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is

8、said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Chapter 11Some important disChapter

9、 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSynchronic and diachronic The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writi

10、ng Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken

11、language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Chapter 11Some important disChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsLangue and parole The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and par

12、ole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what lingui

13、sts should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Chapter 11Some important disChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsCompetence and performance Proposed by American lingui

14、st N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Chapter 11Some i

15、mportant disChapter 12What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on the

16、 purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.Chapter 12What is language?LChapter 12Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal

17、system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Eg: different sounds are used to refer to

18、 the same object in different languages.Productivity Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before

19、.DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matte

20、rs in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.

21、This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 12Design featuresDesChapter 2Chapter 2Chapter 21The phonic medium of languageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural l

22、anguages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance

23、than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.Chapter 21The phonic medium Chapter 22Organs of spe

24、echThe pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (声门) are the voc

25、al cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.Chapter 22Organs of speechThChapter 22Orthographic representation of speech sounds broa

26、d and narrow transcriptionsIPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech soundsOne is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called

27、 narrow transcription 实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号IIChapter 22Orthographic repreCha

28、pter 22Classification of English speech soundsClassification of English consonants按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z s h Affricate 塞擦音：tdLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n Glide滑音：w j按发音部位分 Bilabial双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f vDental齿音： Alveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：tdiVelar软

29、腭音：k g Glottal声门音：hChapter 22Classification of Chapter 22Classification of English speech sounds Classification of English vowels按舌头在口中的位置分Front vowel前元音：i: i e a Central vowel中元音：: Back vowel后元音：u: u : a:按口形的大小分Close vowel闭元音：i: i u: uSemi-close vowel半闭元音：e :Open vowel开元音： aSemi-open vowel半开元音： : a

30、:按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：i: i e a : a:rounded vowel圆唇元音：u: u : 按语音的长短分Long vowel长元音i: :a: u: :Short vowel短元音i e a u 在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：ei ai u a u i i e uChapter 22Classification of Chapter 23Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of

31、 a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communica

32、tion. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Example:单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。Chapter 23Phonology and phonChapter 23Phone, phoneme,

33、 and allophonePhone Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemePhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is call

34、ed phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.allophoneThe different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Ch

35、apter 23Phone, phoneme, anChapter 23Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same p

36、honeme. Phonemic contrastThe former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish plementary distributionThe latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.A basic way to

37、determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way e

38、xcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Chapter 23Phonemic contrast,Chapter 23Some rules in phonologysequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.重

39、要的规则I.如果单词以l 或r 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, II.如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict, splendid.III.塞擦音td和咝音s z 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teachesti:tiz。IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”

40、a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.重要的规则I.元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的i:音。II.在一个单词中，鼻音n所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct incorrect。III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为n音同化成了m音。deletion rules The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted alth

41、ough it is orthographically represented.重要的规则如g音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的g音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，g却要发音的。Chapter 23Some rules in phonChapter 23Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonationDistinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemi

42、c features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.Stress重音重要的规则I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone 声调：英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。Intona

43、tion When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the f

44、irst three.Chapter 23Suprasegmental feaChapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 31DefinitionMorphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivati

45、onal morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.Chapter 31DefinitionMorpholoChapter 32DefinitionMorphemeThe smallest meaningful unit of language。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.Types of morphe

46、mesFree morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form

47、a word.Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.Chapter 32DefinitionMorphemeChapter 32Types of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself

48、 although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense,

49、degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时-er, indicating comparative degree

50、 of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级-s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格Chapter 32Types of Bound morChapter 32Types of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes Derivational affixes are added to a

51、n existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a b

52、ound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.实例：Tolerate 词根toler- 词缀-ateQuickly 自由语素quick 词缀-lyCarelessness 自由语素care 词缀-less 形成的派生词careless 词缀-nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of spe

53、ech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Chapter 32Types of Bound morChapter 33Types of compound words Noun + noun 名词名词 如：handbook, su

54、nshineAdjective +noun 形容词名词 如：highway, sweetheartAdjective +noun +ed 形容词名词ed 如：white-haired, green=eyedVerb +noun 动词名词如：pickpocket, drivewayAdverb +noun 副词名词 如：downtown, upgradeNoun +verb 名词动词如：toothpick, snowfallVerb +adverb 动词副词 如：follow-up, kick-offNoun +adjective 名词形容词如：world-famous, life-long-i

55、ng form +noun -ing形式名词如：dining-room, reading-glassesOther forms 其它形式如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you noteChapter 33Types of compound Chapter 33Features of compounds拼写上Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two s

56、eparate words.语法上Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.语义上Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.语音上Phonetically, the stress of a compo

57、und always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.Chapter 33Features of compouChapter 4Chapter 4Chapter 41What is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means tha

58、t sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Chapter 41What is Syntax?SynChapter 41Syntax as a system of rulesSyntax consists of a set of ab

59、stract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise t

60、he system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.Chapter 41Syntax as a