内容文本语言学

1、2.Someimportantdistinctionsin Prescriptive:aimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusingDescriptive:aimstodescribeSynchronicvs.yzetheLpeopleactuallySynchronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomeDiachronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguage2.Someimportantdistinctionsin Prescriptive:aimstolaydow

2、nrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusingDescriptive:aimstodescribeSynchronicvs.yzetheLpeopleactuallySynchronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomeDiachronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughodern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. It i

3、s tunless the various es of a language in different historical periods are sfully studied, it would be to describe the t have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are thoughtofasbeingdescriptionofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,somostlinguisticstudiesareofthisSpeechandSp

4、eechispriortoa. from the of view of linguistic evolution, the writing system of language is alwaysinventedby userstorecordspeechwhentheneedb.ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrole n ermsofthe amountofc. speech isalwaystheway inwhicheverynative speakeracquires his mother tongue,andwriting is

5、 learned and taught later when he goes to school.d.formodernlinguists,spokenlanguage revealsmore truefeaturesofhumanspeech,thusitwasregardedas authentic, while written language is only the revised record of speech. Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasic Modernlinguisticsregards

6、thespokenLasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammariansemphasizethe importance of the written word.Modern linguistics does not force o a Latin-based framework, while to traditional grammar, providedauniversalowhichallLsfit.Asaresult, other LswereforcedtooLatinandcategories,esp.itscasesystemandtense

7、sofpast,presentand3.Thepropertiesof Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanlanguageisasystem:ie.elementsofLarecombinedtogetheraccordingtolanguage is arbitrary symbolstandst there is rinsic connection n a linguistic symbol and what languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesiss

8、ymbols:languageisexpressedbyliterallanguageishuman-specific,ie.itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsof4. Design features of language: the defining properties of human t distinguish it from any systemofedArbitrariness（任意性）oneofthemajordesignfeaturesofhumanlanguageThereisnologicalconn

9、ectionnmeaningsandExceptonomatopoeicwordsandsomecompoundtarenotentirelyarbitrary.eg.while photoandcopyCharlesrbitrary,thecompoundphotocopyisnotentirelyLanguage is hat it sible the construction ion of new signals by its (Creativityoropen-Animalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyeg.Gibboncalls:gibbon

10、drawtheircallsfromalimitedrepertoire,whichislyexhausted,makinganyBeedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodthe,whichisthe onlykindoftcanbe sent Atthelower level,rbitrary,thecompoundphotocopyisnotentirelyLanguage is hat it sible the construction ion of new signals by its (Creativityoropen-Animalcommunication

11、systemsappeartobehighlyeg.Gibboncalls:gibbondrawtheircallsfromalimitedrepertoire,whichislyexhausted,makinganyBeedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodthe,whichisthe onlykindoftcanbe sent Atthelower level,thereisa structureof sounds,whichare meaninglessby themselves.Butthe soundsofcan be grouped and o a lar

12、ger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and o an infinite number of .ThedualityofstructureenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingheirLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsoftheIt is not

13、restricted by the here and now as animal communication. We can talk about anything we including he past, what is going to he future, what is not he surroundingsandevenwhatwe Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,ie.asbornwiththeabilitytoacquirea thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgenetically

14、transmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtand Eachhelanguageistreatedas Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbedrepeatedlywithoutanyimit.Therecursivenaturelanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforsibilityofcreatingendless.5.FunctionsofThedescriptivefunction,alsoreferredtothecognitive,orreferential,oritionalfunc

15、tion.Itisthetoconveyfactualinfo.eg.“TheSichuanearthquakeisthemostseriousoneChina haseverTheexpressivefunction,alsocalledtheemotiveorattitudinalsinfoaboutthe users, ,and values.eg.“Iwillnever goingwiththeSimpsonsThe l function, also referred as ersonal function, serves to establish and ain l npeople.

16、eg.“HowcanIhelp you, esthinking,speechbehavior,andactionfortherTheideationalfunctionisanizethespeakerorwritersexperienceoftherealorimaginaryersonalfunctionistoindicate,establishorainlrelationshipsnThe textual function is anize written or spoken texts in such a t they are coherent themselvesandfitthe

17、particularsituationinwhichtheyare7.Sixelementsofaspeech Theaddresserexpresseshisattitude tothe topicorsituationofcommunication,eg.“Ihate whateverwheyare planning for me!” Theaddresseraimstoinfluence theaddresseescourse ofaction7.Sixelementsofaspeech Theaddresserexpresseshisattitude tothe topicorsitu

18、ationofcommunication,eg.“Ihate whateverwheyare planning for me!” Theaddresseraimstoinfluence theaddresseescourse ofactionor waysof thinking,eg.“Whynotgoandsee another doctor?” Theaddresser conveysa message of info,eg.“Asfar asIknow,the earthsresour are beingTheaddresseruseslanguagesforthesolo The ad

19、dresser tries to establish or maaingood are you this morning?” eofdisplayingthebeautyoflanguageitself,eg.ersonalrelationshipswiththeaddressee,eg.“Hi!Theaddresseruseslanguagetomakeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself,eg.“Let lyouwhatthe Chapter8.Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same asp

20、ect of the speech sounds, but heirapproachandPhonetics is of a general nature; it erested in all human language: how they are produced, how they fromeachother,whatphonetic featuressess,howtheycanbeclassified,Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns

21、 and how soundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticsThedifferencenlandl,pandpiswhatthenserestedButfromthephonologicalofview,thesetwosoundsarefundamentallythesame,sincetheyhaveoneor the same function in communication, in distinguishing n words and meanings despite their difference Narrow transcription

22、is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. “pit” and “bit”, “pit”, p sounds is pronounced strong puff of air, i.e. aspirated. But in “spit”, the puff of air is withheld some extent, i.e. unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow

23、transcription, smallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thus“pit”istranscribedaspitand“spit”as10.Functions 情感功能emotive 语能grammatical languagesectionpsychological表态功能attitudinal function 话语功能 discourse function 能grammaticalfunction强调功能accentual functiontractiononation: when pitch, stress and sound lengre

24、tiedtothesentencerather collectively known asnthewordinisolation,they thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedtcanappearpriortotheacategoryatanylevel(a headoranentire XP)canbecoordinatedcategoriesmustbetractiononation: when pitch, stress and sound lengretiedtothesentencerather collectively known asnth

25、ewordinisolation,they thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedtcanappearpriortotheacategoryatanylevel(a headoranentire XP)canbecoordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesamethecategorytypeofthecoordinatedphraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingChapters13.MajorviewsconcerningthestudyofThenamingtheory

26、:ions: edbytheancientGreek.Wordsarejustnamesorlabelsfottdenote things do not he real world at all such as ghost, dragon. And chas joyand The conceptualist view t there is no direct link n a linguistic form and what it refers to; arelinkedthroughthemediationofhemind.(y) Contextualism Referent(realt m

27、eaning should be erms of situation, use, context-elements linkedwithlanguageThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the t one can derive meaning from or meaning to observable context. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the eg.a. the meaningof the wordinwhichthe Sh

28、eS“The sealcould not befound” canonly be determinedby the Thesealcouldnotbe found,the zookeeperbecame worried(sealmeansanaquatic orThesealcouldnotbefound,thekingbecameworried(sealmeansthekingsb.Themeaningoftheword“black”Blackhair:thecolorofhairishetwocollocationsof“blackhair”and“blackBlackcoffee:cof

29、feewithoutaddingsugarormilk,justngtheoriginaltasteofBehavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeaker uttersittheresponseitcallshe R14.Sense andSenseandreferencearetwohestudyof(1)Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticReference:meanswhatalinguistic

30、formrefershereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipnthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldof(2) Obviously,linguistic formshaving the samesense mayhavedifferentindifferentsituations.On J.R.other hand, there are less frequent e.g.“morningstar”and“eveningswhen linguistic formswith the same

31、 reference might differ in 15.Majorsensethesamenessorclosesimilarityof stylisticsynonymssynonymsdifferinginstyle. eg. other hand, there are less frequent e.g.“morningstar”and“eveningswhen linguistic formswith the same reference might differ in 15.Majorsensethesamenessorclosesimilarityof stylisticsyn

32、onymssynonymsdifferinginstyle. eg. old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentc. theiremotiveorevaluativeeg.collaboratorhelpsanotherd.collocationalngsth. e. andbewilderment,astoundsuggestsdifficultyinsnonerelatedHomophones: when two words are identical in sound Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspel

33、lingCompletehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinThewordwhichismoreThewordwhichismoreeaningiscalledthesuperordinator,eg.eaningiscalledhyponym,eg.lily,tulip, 反义词可以分为哪几类？Gradableantonyms:Someantonymsareecausetherearentwomembersofapairsuch Complementaryantonyms:apairofcomplementaryantony

34、msischaracterizedbythetdenialofonememberofthepairstheassertionoftheother.Male/female,alive/Relationalites:pairsoftexhibitthereversalofarelationshipnthetwo 16.SenserelationsnXissynonymouswithXisinconsistentwithX:JohnisXentailsY(YisanentailmentofY:JohnisaXesY(YisaprerequisiteofXisaeg.Myunmarriedsister

35、ismarriedtoaXisallyanomalous(语义反常eg.Thetablehas17. 句子的意义Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.Itcannotbeworkedoutaddingupallthe meaningsofitsconstituentwords.ForThedogbittheThemanbitthe Thetwoconsistofexactlythesamewords,buttheyarcwidelyheirChapter19.sBothofthemareling

36、uisticstudiesofWhatessentiallydistinguishessandpragmaticsishestudyofmeaningthecontextofuse20.Sentencevs.Asentenceisait.Themanbitthe Thetwoconsistofexactlythesamewords,buttheyarcwidelyheirChapter19.sBothofthemarelinguisticstudiesofWhatessentiallydistinguishessandpragmaticsishestudyofmeaningthecontext

37、ofuse20.Sentencevs.Asentenceisait.Itsmeaningisoftenstudiedas,rinsicpropertyoftheermsofa Utteranceiswhatpeopleactuallywhichituallyutteredorhecourseofcommunication.ItshouldbehesituationMostsometaketheformof,i.e.mostarecompleteermsofsyntax;arenot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocomplete.21. Sentencemeanin

38、gvs.utteranceThemeaningofasentenceandde-contextualized,whilethemeaningofanutteranceisconcreteUtterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationofthe situation of communication, or simply in a context.eg.MybagisSentencemeaning:BAG(BEmeaningofasentenceinaUtterancemeaning:a.astraightforwardlin

39、gthetthebagisb.anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythec.adeclineofsomeonesrequestfor22. noted.The notionofcontextisessentialtothe pragmatic studyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hear.twhichoccursbeforeand/orafteraword,a

40、phraseorevenalongerutteranceora text.Thecontextofteninunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword,phrase,etc.Forle,the wordloudinloudmusicusuallyunderstoodasmeaning“noisy”whereasinatieloudpatternitisunderstoodas“unpleasantThecontextmayalsobethe broaderlsituationinwhichalinguisticitemisused.Forle,inus

41、age,spinsterreferstoanolderunmarriedwomanbutinalegalcontextitreferstoanyunmarriedTheillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerofaskingthehearertoclosethetbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedTheperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearertthe endshimclosethedoorandclosesthedoor,thespeake

42、rcsfullybroughtabouttheherealworldheendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactcsfullyperformed24. Searlesclassificationofillocutionaryactsives:ingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakervestobetrue.Tocommitthespeakersthsbeingthecase,tothetruthofsbeenDirectives:tryingtogetthehearertodoCommissives:committingthespeaker

43、himselftosomefuture24. Searlesclassificationofillocutionaryactsives:ingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakervestobetrue.Tocommitthespeakersthsbeingthecase,tothetruthofsbeenDirectives:tryingtogetthehearertodoCommissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction. Expressives: expressing feelin

44、gs or attitude towards an existing sDeclarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysaying25.IndirectspeechWhensomeoneisnotsayinginanexplicitandstraightforwardmannerwhathemeanstosay,ratherheistryingputacrosshismessageinanimplicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirectAccordingtoSearle,whenaspeakerisusi

45、ngindirectlanguage,heisospeechactone istheprimaryspeechactandthe otheristhe secondaryspeechact.The primaryspeechactisthe speakers goal of communication while the secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.eg.StudentX:LetsgotothemoviesStudentY:Ihave to studyforanObviously,bysayin

46、g“Ihavetostudyforanexam”StudentYissaying“No”toStudentggestiontogomovies.AccordingtoSearlesindirectspeechacttheory,theprimaryspeechactStudentYperformswithutteranceistheactofrejectingStudentggestionandthesecondaryspeechactheperformsistheactmakingaementaboutthethe hastostudyforanexam.Sotherelationnthes

47、econdarynmeansandactandthe primaryone t26. PrincipleofCooperativeprinciplewased.(1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrenteoftheexchange)(2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmorenis2)of(1) Donotsaywhatyouvetobe(2) Donottforwhichyoulackadequateofrelation:BeofAvoidobscurityofAvoid.Bebrief(avo

48、idBe A:When B:SometimenextThisissaidwhenitisknownto and BtBdoesknowexactlywhenSusanisgoingtogive farewellparty.ThusBiswithholdingsomeoftheinforequiredatthisstageofconversationandisthusfloutingtoty.Theconversationaltresultis“IdonotwishlyouwhenthepartyisA:Wouldyouliketojoinusfor ic onB:Imafraid Ihaveg

49、otaclassonThisissaidwhenitisknowntoandBtBis vinganytwillpreventhimPaulgoingforic.ThusBissayingthehimselfknowstobefalseandheisviolatingquality.HisdmessageisIdonotwanttogotojoinyouforA:Howdidthe mathexamgotoday,iconB:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththe otherclassandwebeatThisissaidwhengoingforic.ThusBissayin

50、gthehimselfknowstobefalseandheisviolatingquality.HisdmessageisIdonotwanttogotojoinyouforA:Howdidthe mathexamgotoday,iconB:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththe otherclassandwebeatThisissaidwhenandBtitissible for BlAhowwellorhowbadlyhehemathexam.BsresponseisthustotallyirrelevanttoAsquestion.Thushehasfloutedof

51、 TheconversationalimplicaturetIdontwishtotalkaboutthe mathA:ShallwegetsomethingfortheB:Yes. ButIvetoI- C- E- C- R- E-A - ThisissaidwhenandBtBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingthewordice-cream.Thushas flouted ofmanner.Theconversational implicature t I dont want the kids to know we talkingaboutice-27.Pragma

52、ticItoccurswhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicativee,orthehearerfailstorecognize entionortheillocutionaryforceofthespeakershecontextofpragmaticfailureinEnglishusedbylearnersofPragmalinguisticfailure:weSociopragmaticfailure:theuse“Itdoesntmatter”asaresponsetoanstarta

53、byasking“Have youhadAndtheliketoalquestionsinordertoshortenthe sometimesitisthestructureofthelanguage tcausesthe eg.Passenger:CanlmewhenwegettoBirmingham,Driver:Itsabigplace.YouwontmisssometimesitisbecausethespeakerfailstocommunicateeffectivelytotheHostess:Itsreallybeena longday,Leo.IthinkStevecangi

54、ve youa liftbackhome. Guest: Oh, Im fine. Can I have another cup of coffee, please?sometimesitisbecausethehearerfailstoseetheentionoflearner:Haveyouhadch,ProfessorProfessorHiggins:Chapter28.somerecenttrendoflanguage(1)movingtowardsgreatera.conversationalformslike,dont,andcantarenowcommonlyusedinheb.

55、peopleprefertouseinformalchas“Itsme”and“whodidyouc.theuseofpunctuationmarksinglessstrict.eg.theuseofcomma“,”beforebecauseisaccepted theinfluenceofscienceanda.spacetravel,eg.uit, puterernetlanguage,eg.tobaidu,tohacker,toscan,c.ecology,eg.ecocide,visualpollution,noisepollution,29.Thecausesoflanguage S

56、oundassimilation isthephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Itmaycauselossofvowelsor consonants, vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.Rulesimplificationandregularizationareatypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangeexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.Forle,manyEnglishspeakerstendtoignor

57、etheexceptionalpluraljustproducingpluralchas“hoofs”insteadofernalborrowingcausedSoundassimilation isthephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Itmaycauselossofvowelsor consonants, vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.Rulesimplificationandregularizationareatypeofspontaneousmorpholo

58、gicalrulechangeexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.Forle,manyEnglishspeakerstendtoignoretheexceptionalpluraljustproducingpluralchas“hoofs”insteadofernalborrowingcausedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemory.Forle,ogytothed”and“seem/seemed”,Englishspeakersareheardsaying“Hepedthe(4)Elaborationismotivatedbythenee

59、dtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorForle,ModernEnglishhasastricterwordnOldEnglish(5)Sociologicaltriggersrefertothoseradicalsocio-politicaltleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.typicalhehistoryofEnglishistheNormanConquest,amilitarytmarkedthedawningofMiddleEnglish(6) Thecontinual sofculturala

60、crossgenerationsisanothercauseoflanguagechange.le,whileoldpeopletendtocallarefrigerator“icebox”,theyoungergenerationismoreoftenheardspeakinga“fridge”astheyhavethedesiretosounddifferentfromtheolder(7)ChildrensapproximationtowardtheadultgrammarconstitutesanotherbasiccauseforlanguageChildrentendtoacqui