气象专业学术英语知识讲座

1、气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语的一般特征 第二讲名词短语与名词化结构第三讲时态与语态用法第四讲转述语与转述动词第五讲评价与作者立场第六讲语篇互动机制：元话语第七讲主位结构分析第八讲语篇衔接手段第九讲体裁分析与论文引言部分的 CARS 模型第十讲摘要、论文方法、结果和讨论部分的宏观结构气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语及其一般特征学术英语(EAP)的基本概念、主要研究问题、教学特征及研究发展简史与普通英语的主要区别（文体正式、高度的专业性、词汇特点（学术英语词汇表、概念外壳名词）、句法特点、模糊语的运用）主要流派（系统功能语法、体裁分析方法） 批判性阅读与写作第二讲名词化结构积木结构

2、名词化结构（基本类型，功能）第三讲语态与时态被动语态的运用主动语态运用的时机学术语篇中常用的三种时态时态的语用（语篇）功能？ 条件句中的时态第四讲主位结构分析 系统功能语法的基本概念主位、述位主位化主位推进模式摘要语篇中的主位推进第五讲衔接与连贯 基本概念衔接手段第六讲论文引言的宏观结构及其语言特征学术论文的宏观结构CARS 模型及其语步识别转述语（转述语分型：完整式转述与非完整式转述，转述动词及其分类，转述动词时态的语法隐喻）第八讲摘要的宏观结构及其语言特征摘要定义、作用及类型宏观结构（语步模式）及其语言特征（时态、语态） 标题语言学特征第九讲论文主体部分的宏观结构及其语言特征方法部分（基本

3、内容及语步模式，对数值模式或资料的描述，数值模拟的描述，对天气形势/天气过程的描述，学术语篇中的祈使句，时态）结果部分（基本内容及语步模式，指称研究结果，叙述研究结果，说明或评论研究结果，图表说明，时态）讨论部分（基本内容及语步模式，常用句型，句子副词，时态） 结论部分（基本内容及语步模式，时态）第十讲学术语篇中的互动机制：元话语学术语篇的互动性Hyland 元话语理论模式学术语篇中元话语的功能（说服的三种手段：气质、动情和说理）作者立场（基本概念、认知型立场标记语、态度型立场标记语、方式型立场标记语）Features of academic writingIntroductionAcadem

4、ic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There ar

5、e eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written languag

6、e has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.FormalityAcademic writing is r

7、elatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.PrecisionIn academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.ObjectivityWritten language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writ

8、er or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit

9、about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.AccuracyAcademic writing uses vocabulary a

10、ccurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between phonetics and phonemics; general English does not.HedgingIn any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on aparticular subject, or the strength of

11、 the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a hedge.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any c

12、laims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language.Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammat

13、ical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more that/to complement cla

14、uses, morelong sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.The following features are common in academic written texts:Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Pa

15、ssive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalisation, Attributive adjectivesExamplesHalliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spokentext:You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that theyll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they w

16、ould otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.with a typical writtenvariant:The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions.SpokenWhenever Id visited there before, IdWrittenEvery previous visit had left meended up f

17、eeling that it would be futile if I with a sense of the futility of furthertried to do anything more.The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful, but they changed when people became violent.Because the technology has improved its less risky than it used to be when you install them at the same t

18、ime, and it doesnt cost so much either.The people in the colony rejoiced when itaction on my part.Violence changed the face of once peaceful Swiss cities.Improvements in technology havereduced the risks and high costs associated with simultaneous installation.Opinion in the colony greeted thewas pro

19、mised that things would change in promised change with enthusiasm.this way.The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary. Other equivalents are given below (p.81):FormalityIn general this means in an essay that you should avoid:colloquial words and expressions: stuff, a lot of, thing, sort

20、of,abbreviated forms: cant, doesnt, shouldnttwo word verbs: put off, bring upsub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.asking questions.PrecisionIn academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not use a lot of peopl

21、e when you can say 50 million people.For example:Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred yearsbut all they had achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in18871854, and i

22、nit was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. Itthousandswas called mustard gas and was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many of casualties.eightIt is approximatelyinches in length and runs from the urinary bladder,through the prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, p

23、assing throughthe corpus spongiosum, it ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatu. sObjectivityThis means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic natur

24、e of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you think or believe.They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and

25、research and it is important to make this clear.Compare these two paragraphs:The question of what constitutes language proficiency and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and test

26、ing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more communicative (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete la

27、nguage skills.We dont really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for commu

28、nicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it.Which is the most objective?In general, avoid words like I, me, myself.A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.Dont write: In my op

29、inion, this a very interesting study.Write: This is a very interesting study.Avoid you to refer to the reader or people in general.Dont write: You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago.Write: It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago.ExamplesClearly this was far less t

30、rue of France than .This is where the disagreements and controversies begin . The data indicates that .This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that . . .very few people would claim .It is worthwhile at this stage to consider .Of course, more concrete evidence is needed befo

31、re . Several possibilities emerge .A common solution is .Academic writing is explicit in several ways.It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibil

32、ity to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.The Bristol 167 was to be Britains

33、great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.If you t

34、hink that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current

35、 account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew fromthe history of Europe to have

36、 preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lords control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical I

37、ndian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he

38、has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. Fo

39、r example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.For more information see Writing Paragraphs: Signalling.It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sour

40、ces of the ideas in the text.If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it. Do THIS in academic writingMcGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown thatthough Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem wit

41、hin an all-Ireland state.NOTAlthough Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.NOTResearchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubli

42、ners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.AccuracyIn academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for example, phonetics and phonology or grammarwith syntax.Choose the correct word, for example, meeting, assembly , gathering

43、 or conference.Or from: money, cash, currency, capital or funds.HedgingIt is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautiou

44、s language, often called hedging or vague language.In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making.Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways. Language used in hedging:Introductory verbs:e.g. seem,

45、tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggestCertain lexical verbse.g. believe, assume, suggestCertain modal verbs:e.g. will, must, would, may, might, couldAdverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usuallyModal adverbsModal adjectivesModal nounsThat clausesTo-cla

46、use + adjectivee.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possiblee.g. assumption, possibility, probabilitye.g. It could be the case that .e.g. It might be suggested that .e.g. There is every hope that .e.g. It may be possib

47、le to obtain .e.g. It is important to develop .e.g. It is useful to study .EXAMPLESCompare the following:It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is

48、 now.The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence

49、no evolution.Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remained in possession of the property entrusted to him.Yet a recalcitrant

50、trustee did not remain in possession of the property entrusted to him.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicates a separating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern

51、Ireland shows aseparating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points would cross

52、 a valley.By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points would cross a valley.There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the only possible method of transmission.There are cas

53、es where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.Nowadays the urinary symptoms seem to be of a lesser order. Nowadays the urinary symptoms are of a lesser order.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You must

54、 also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of this information or ideas by a system of citation.Citing sourcesIntroductionOne of the most important a

55、spects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materialsthat you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988,

56、p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is the complex activity to write from other texts, which is a major part of their academic experience. For this reason, any academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your own.In you

57、r writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of academic writingis for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your

58、 own way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar. It is essential therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.There are two

59、 main ways in which you can show your view (Tadros, 1993):negatively positivelylack of mention of any other writerfirst person pronouns (I)comments and evaluations (two major drawbacks, of no great merit, as X insightfully states, )It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own if yo

60、u do not say otherwise. When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you must make this clear. If you do not do this and use another persons words or ideas as if they were your own, this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.The ideas and people t