精选自我和他人

1、?心理学导论?第十六讲：自我和他人16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 简介：本讲是社会心理学的第一局部，主要讨论“我们如何看待自我、他人和社会团体；其中六度别离理论说明了在社会交往中重要的个体差异，回忆了许多极大影响我们如何看待自我和他人的偏见。首先，Paul教授利用Milgram的研究讲述了连接器枢纽和六度别离理论，在此根底上讨论了“您们为何要来耶鲁？然后，详细解释了自我的三个显著现象： 每个人都在关注我：聚光灯效应、透明效应； 我很棒：Lake Wobegon效应该地的小孩均优于平均水平-由于反应的属性、评

2、判标准的不同造成的； 我所做的均有意义：Festinger的认知失调理论-当人们经历在两种思潮间的不一致时，必然会产生一种不快的情感状态失调；而我们须做的就是减轻失调，即防止不一致的信息；改变我们的态度使其与我们的决定一致贬低他人、Festinger &Carlsmith的实验说明抬高自我； 认知失调理论在我们生活中无处不在：入会时的受辱仪式、付费治疗的有效性、大选中免费工作的忠诚性、奖励小孩的危险性等；认知失调理论会导致行为归因错误；所谓归因就是有关某人行为原因的一种断言，即寻找事件或行为发生的原因；而个人的偏见常常会导致根本归因错误-人们常常过多地关注人格、个性等内在因素，而低估了环境、文

3、化背景等外在因素。 最后，讲述如何看待他人中的“我们为何会喜欢他人？重申并补充了Peter系主任的爱之三大因素：距离上的邻近性、个性上的相似性、外表上的吸引力。 This is the first of two lectures on social psychology, the study of how we think about ourselves, other people, and social groups. Students will hear about the famous six degrees of separation phenomenon and how it ill

4、uminates important individual differences in social connectedness. This lecture also reviews a number of important biases that greatly influence how we think of ourselves as well as other people. Reading assignment:Gray, Peter. Psychology (5th edition), chapter 13 Friday, August 12, 2023 Professor P

5、aul Bloom: This is going to begin a two-lecture sequence on social psychology on how we think about ourselves, how we think about other people, how we think about other groups of people. Weve talked a lot about the capacities of the human mind and some of these capacities involve adapting and dealin

6、g with the material world. So, we have to choose foods, we have to navigate around the world, we have to recognize objects, we have to be able to understand physical interactions. But probably the most interesting aspect of our evolved minds is our capacity to understand and deal with other people.【

7、今天开始将花两讲来介绍社会心理学，主要讨论“我们如何看待自己，如何看待他人，如何看待其它团体。我们已讨论过人类心理的一些能力-如何适应和处理物质世界的能力。因此，我们就有选择食物、航海、认识客体、理解物质的相互作用等能力；但我们人类最为有趣的心理能力是理解和处理他人的能力。】 We are intensely interested in how other people work. The story that was a dominant news story in 2023 was this. And some of you-this-for those of you who arent

8、seeing the screen, is the separation of Jennifer Aniston and Brad Pitt. I remember where I was when I first heard about this. laughter And its an interesting sight. Just remember-stepping back. As psychologists we have to question the natural. We have to take things that are commonsense and explore

9、them. And one thing which just happens is, were fascinated by this stuff. Were fascinated by the lives of celebrities. Were fascinated by the social lives of other people. And its an interesting question to ask why. And this is one of the questions which Im going to deal with in the next couple of l

10、ectures but before I get to the theory of social psychology I want to talk about an individual difference.【我们热衷于“他人是如何奋斗？2023年最有影响力的新闻是詹妮弗安妮斯顿?老友记?中莫妮卡的扮演者与布拉德皮特?史密斯夫妇?中的男主角、安吉丽娜朱丽的现任老公的离异；Paul教授现在还记得“当他听到该消息时身在何处-这确实很有趣。作为心理学家，我们须质疑那些普通自然的事情，须抓住那些常识性的事物并探究其原因。一件刚发生的事就是，我们被其素材、名人的生活、他人的社会生活所吸引。探寻其背后

11、的原因将是个有趣的问题，这也是我后面几讲会讨论的问题之一；但在接触社会心理学理论前，我们先讨论个体的差异。】 So, we devoted a lecture early on-of a couple of weeks ago, to individual differences across people in intelligence and personality. I want to talk a little bit about an individual difference in our social natures and then I want people to do a

12、test that will explore where you stand on a continuum. That test is the piece of paper you have in front of you. Anybody who doesnt have it please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you. You dont know what to do yet with it so dont worry. The test was developed actually

13、 by Malcolm Gladwell who is a science writer-in his wonderful book The Tipping Point. And as he introduces the test, Gladwell recounts another experiment done by Stanley Milgram, of course famous for his obedience work but he did a lot of interesting things.【几周前我们曾花了一讲的课程来讨论人们在智力和人格上的个体差异；现在我想花点时间来讨

14、论在社会本性上的个体差异，然后让您们来做个测试，以探索“您们处于哪个统一体-本测试是由科普作家、?The Tipping Point?的作者马尔科姆格莱德威尔Malcolm Gladwell提出并开展起来的；在其介绍本测试时，Gladwell表达了由Stanley Milgram做过的另一个实验-除著名的服从实验还曾做过不少有趣的实验。】背景介绍Malcolm GladwellMalcolm Gladwell (born September 3, 1963) is a Canadian journalist, bestselling author, and speaker.1 He is cu

15、rrently based in New York City and has been a staff writer for The New Yorker since 1996. He has written four books, The Tipping Point (2000), Blink (2023), Outliers (2023), and What the Dog Saw: And Other Adventures (2023). All four books were New York Times Bestsellers.Gladwells books and articles

16、 often deal with the unexpected implications of research in the social sciences and make frequent and extended use of academic work, particularly in the areas of sociology, psychology, and social psychology. Gladwell was appointed to the Order of Canada on June 30, 2023.2Early lifeGladwell was born

17、in Fareham, Hampshire, England to Joyce, Jamaican-born psychotherapist and Graham Gladwell, a British mathematics professor.34 Gladwell has said that his mother is his role model as a writer.5 When he was six his family moved to Elmira, Ontario, Canada.3Gladwells father noted that Malcolm was an unu

18、sually single-minded and ambitious boy.6 When Malcolm was 11, his father, who was a professor emeritus of mathematics at the University of Waterloo, allowed him to wander around the offices at his university, which stoked the boys interest in reading and libraries.7 During his high school years, Gla

19、dwell was an outstanding middle-distance runner and won the 1500 meter title at the 1978 Ontario High School championships in Kingston, Ontario.8 In the spring of 1982, Gladwell interned with the National Journalism Center in Washington, D.C.9 He graduated with a degree in history from the Universit

20、y of Torontos Trinity College in 1984.10CareerGladwells grades werent good enough for graduate school (as Gladwell puts it, “college was not an. intellectually fruitful time for me), so he decided to go into advertising.711 After being rejected by every advertising agency he applied to, he accepted

21、a journalism position at The American Spectator and moved to Indiana.12 He subsequently wrote for Insight on the News, a conservative magazine owned by the Rev. Sun Myung Moons Unification Church.13 In 1987, Gladwell began covering business and science for The Washington Post, where he worked until

22、1996.14 In a personal elucidation of the 10,000 hour rule he popularized in Outliers, Gladwell notes, I was a basket case at the beginning, and I felt like an expert at the end. It took 10 years exactly that long.7When he started at The New Yorker in 1996 he wanted to mine current academic research

23、for insights, theories, direction, or inspiration.6 His first assignment was to write a piece about fashion. Instead of writing about high-class fashion, Gladwell opted to write a piece about a man who manufactured T-shirts, saying “it was much more interesting to write a piece about someone who mad

24、e a T-shirt for $8 than it was to write about a dress that costs $100,000. I mean, you or I could make a dress for $100,000, but to make a T-shirt for $8 - thats much tougher.6 Gladwell gained popularity with two New Yorker articles, both written in 1996: The Tipping Point 15 and The Coolhunt 1617 T

25、hese two pieces would become the basis for Gladwells first book, The Tipping Point, for which he received a $1 million advance.1118 He continues to write for The New Yorker.ReceptionThe Tipping Point was named as one of the best books of the decade by A customers, The Onion A.V. Club, The Guardian,

26、and The Times.31323334 It was also Barnes and Nobless 5th bestselling nonfiction book of the decade.35 Blink was named to Fast Companys list of the best business books of 2023.36 It was also #5 on Amazon users favorite books of 2023, named to Christian Science Monitors best nonfiction books of 2023,

27、 and in the top 50 of Amazon users favorite books of the decade.373138 Outliers was a #1 New York Times Bestseller for 11 straight weeks, and was Times #10 nonfiction book of 2023, as well as named to The San Francisco Chronicles list of the 50 best nonfiction books of 2023.394041Critical appraisal

28、of Gladwells work has been mixed. Most praise his gift for compelling writing and clarity of expression while many disagree with his conclusions or question the validity of his methods.Fortune described The Tipping Point as “a fascinating book that makes you see the world in a different way.4243 The

29、 Daily Telegraph called it “a wonderfully offbeat study of that little-understood phenomenon, the social epidemic.44 Steven Pinker writes that Gladwell is a writer of many gifts. He avoids shopworn topics, easy moralization and conventional wisdom, encouraging his readers to think again and think di

30、fferent. His prose is transparent, with lucid explanations and a sense that we are chatting with the experts ourselves.45 Reviewing Blink, the Baltimore Sun dubbed Gladwell “the most original American journalist since the young Tom Wolfe.46 Farhad Manjoo at Salon described the book as “a real pleasu

31、re. As in the best of Gladwells work, Blink brims with surprising insights about our world and ourselves.47 The Economist called Outliers “a compelling read with an important message.48 David Leonhardt wrote in The New York Times Book Review: “In the vast world of nonfiction writing, Malcolm Gladwel

32、l is as close to a singular talent as exists today and that Outliers “leaves you mulling over its inventive theories for days afterward.49 Ian Sample wrote in the Guardian: “Brought together, the pieces form a dazzling record of Gladwells art. There is depth to his research and clarity in his argume

33、nts, but it is the breadth of subjects he applies himself to that is truly impressive.5051Criticism of Gladwell tends to focus on the fact that he is a journalist and not an academic, and as a result his work does not meet the standard of academic writing. Critics charge that he sometimes stretches

34、his colorful stories to make them apply to business issues.52 The New Republic called the final chapter of Outliers, impervious to all forms of critical thinking.53 Gladwell has also received criticism for his emphasis on anecdotal evidence over research to support his conclusions.54 Maureen Tkacik

35、and Steven Pinker have challenged the integrity of Gladwells approach.4555 Even while praising Gladwells attractive writing style and content, Pinker sums up his take on Gladwell as, a minor genius who unwittingly demonstrates the hazards of statistical reasoning, while accusing Gladwell of cherry-p

36、icked anecdotes, post-hoc sophistry and false dichotomies in his book Outliers. Referencing a Gladwell reporting mistake, Pinker criticizes his lack of expertise: I will call this the Igon Value Problem: when a writers education on a topic consists in interviewing an expert, he is apt to offer gener

37、alizations that are banal, obtuse or flat wrong.45 A writer in The Independent accused Gladwell of posing obvious insights.56 The Register has accused Gladwell of making arguments by weak analogy and commented that Gladwell has an aversion for fact, adding that, Gladwell has made a career out of han

38、ding simple, vacuous truths to people and dressing them up with flowery language and an impressionistic take on the scientific method.57Awards and honours2023 Time named Gladwell one of its 100 most influential people.582023 American Sociological Associations first Award for Excellence in the Report

39、ing of Social Issues.592023 honorary degree from University of Waterloo.60612023 honorary degree from University of Toronto背景介绍 And one classic study he did was he gave a package to 160 people randomly chosen in Omaha, Nebraska and he asked these people to get the package somehow and this was many y

40、ears ago before the internet, before e-mail to get the package to a stockbroker who worked in Boston but lived in Sharon, Massachusetts. What he found was that most people were able to do it. Nobody, of course, knew this man but they knew people who might know people who would know this man. So, mos

41、t people succeeded. Most people were able to get the packages to this man and it took at maximum six degrees of separation, which is where the famous phrase comes about that were all separated from another person by six degrees of separation. This is not true in general. This was a very-a single exp

42、eriment done within the United States, but the idea is appealing, that people are connected to one another via chains of people.【格莱德威尔曾做过的一个经典实验就是，他将一个包裹交给从内布拉斯加州和堪萨斯州随机选择出的160名志愿者，请他们将包裹寄给一名工作在波士顿但居住在沙伦的股票经纪人。米尔格兰姆发现“大局部人都能完成这项实验-当然实验者中无人认识这个股票经纪人，但实验者知道“他们认识的某人也许会认识这个股票经纪人-且完成实验最多花费了别离的六次，六度别离这个著名

43、的术语源于“陌生人之间建立联系的最远距离是6个人次；其迷人之处在于“人们彼此间的联系时通过一系列人来完成的。】 But what Milgram found that was particularly interesting was that in about half of the cases these packages went through two people. That is, if you plot the relationships between people-We can take each person in this room, find everybody you

44、know and who knows you and draw a line, but if we were to do this you wouldnt find an even mesh of wires. Rather, youd find that some people are clusters. Some people are what Gladwell calls connectors. Its like air traffic. Air traffic used to be everything flew to places local to it but now theres

45、 a system of hubs, Chicago OHare for instance or Newark where planes fly through. Some people are hubs. Some people are the sort of people who know a lot of people. Some people in this room might be hubs, and it is not impossible to find out.【米尔格兰姆发现有趣有趣的是“大约一般的实验案例中，这些包裹经历了2个人；即，如果您划分人们间的关系-以本教室里的每

46、个人为例，将您找到的每个您认识他，且他也认识您的人之间间画一条线-当您们完成上述工作，您们发现的不是一张网状图而是一些人群，其中某些人被格莱德威尔称之为连接器-如像空中交通中连接其他城市的航空枢纽如同网络集线器。这些位于网络中心的人们能认识很多其他人。】 The piece of paper you have here is 250 names chosen randomly from a Manhattan phone book. They capture a range of ethnicities, different parts of the world, different nati

47、onal origins. Heres what Id like you to do. And Ill give about five minutes for this. Go through these names and circle how many people you know. Now, the rules of this are, to know somebody you have to-they have to know you back. So, if its a celebrity-Well, here-one of the names here is Johnson. N

48、ow, Ive heard of Magic Johnson but Magic Johnson has never heard of me, so I cannot circle it. On the other hand, our department chair is Marcia Johnson. She has heard of me, so I could circle it. Go through and circle it. Circle all the people you know who know you. Those are the people youre conne

49、cted to. If you know more than one person with the same last name, circle it twice. If you dont have this piece of paper and you want to participate, please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you. Im going to talk a little bit more about this while people go through thi

50、s.【通过课堂实验来讲解六度别离理论】 The issue of connections between people is intellectually interesting for many reasons and might allow us to develop some generalizations about how people interact. The game of Six Degrees of Separation has, of course, turned into a famous movie trivia thing revolving around the

51、actor Kevin Bacon, I think chosen just because it rhymes with separation. And the game of Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon is played by taking any actor and computing how many steps it would take to get to Kevin Bacon. And some computer scientists have developed this. Theyve gone through each of the quart

52、er million actors and actresses on the international movie database and computed their Bacon number. And the Bacon number is the number of steps it takes for them to get to Kevin Bacon. So for instance, Ed Asner was in the movie Change of-;JFK with Kevin Bacon. So, Ed Asner has a Bacon number of one

53、. Elvis Presley was in the movie Change of Habit with Ed Asner and thats his closest connection to Kevin Bacon. So, Elvis Presley has a Bacon number of two.【】 It turns out that if you look at the 2.5-sorry, the quarter million people on the movie database and compute their Bacon number, the average

54、Bacon number is 2.8. Thats how many steps your average person is away from Kevin Bacon. You could then, for any actor or actress, compute the most connected one. So, the most connected one would be the one for whom the quarter million are, on average, the most connected to. And the answer of the mos

55、t connected actor or actress is reasonably surprising. Does anybody want to guess? Ill start you off with the wrong answer and this, by the way, can be found on this web site. Its not John Wayne. John Wayne has been in many movies, 180 movies, in fact, over sixty years, but he isnt well connected at

56、 all because mostly he was in westerns so we saw the same people over and over again. Meryl Streep also isnt it because Meryl Streep has the misfortune of playing only in good movies. laughter So, she has no connection with people like Adam Sandler and John-Claude Van Damme. laughter Guess. Any gues

57、ses?【】 Student: Christopher WalkenStudent: Nicholas Cage尼古拉斯凯奇Professor Paul Bloom: Christopher Walken is a good one. We could look it up. I only know a few names here. Christopher Walken is not a finalist. Nicolas Cage is an interesting case. Has Nicolas Cage been in good movies? I dont want to get

58、-Im going to get more controversial than I want to.【】 Student: A guy who is one step above an extra. Hes like a B-list actor at best.Professor Paul Bloom: Pardon me? The most connected guy? The most connected guy, and I think this shows that youre right, is Rod Steiger. Hes the most connected actor

59、in the history of acting because it isnt that hes been in more movies than everybody else. Michael Caine has probably been in the most movies of any person on earth, but hes Rod Steiger been in all sorts of movies. He was in On the Waterfront, In the Heat of the Night, and really bad movies like Car

60、pool. Hes been in dramas and crime serials, thrillers, westerns, horror movies, science fiction, musicals. Now, some people are like Rod Steiger. So, some people in their day-to-day lives have many interactions and I think one of the things we know from interacting with people is we can distinguish