高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译中英文

1、 高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处： Structural Engineer Journal of the Institution of StructuralEngineer, 2014, 92, pp: 26-29.英文原文Talling building and Steel constructionCollins MarkAlthough there have been many advancements in buildingconstruction technology in general. Spectacular achievements have b

2、eenmade in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structuralsteel fraing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems havesince been economically and competitively used in a number of structuresfor both residential and c

3、ommercial purposes. The high-rise buildingsranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the UnitedStates are the result of innovations and development of new structuralsystems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to makebuildings more rigid so that under wind load t

4、hey will not sway beyondan acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurringdamage to partitions, ceilings. and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the buildingbecause their perception of such motion. Structural systems

5、of reinforced concrete, as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffnessof the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit thesway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined interms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot

6、of floor area ofthe building. Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of aconventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve Brepresents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from alllateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lowerboundary represent

7、s the premium for height for the traditionalcolumn-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structuralsystems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result ofseveral types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applie

8、dto the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of aframe structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belttrusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A goodexample of this system i

9、s the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) inMilwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tallbuilding, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other insuch a way that the entire building acts

10、 as a hollow tube or rigid box inprojecting out of the ground. This particular structural system wasprobably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWittChestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of thissystem is in the twin structural steel towers of the

11、110-story World TradeCenter building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building canbe spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tubeby connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre lineof the columns and beams. This simple yet

12、extremely efficient systemwas used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, usingas much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and tallerbuildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be us

13、edin a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining highefficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building inChicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows.Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of thebuilding, demonstrati

14、ng the unlimited architectural possibilities of thislatest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), isthe worlds tallest building. Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developedfor improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) andthe

15、control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. Thestressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The developmentof the stressed-skin tube utilizes the fa ade of the building as a structuralelement which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient wayof resi

16、sting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting incost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to grossfloor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin fa ade, the framedmembers of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and lessexpensive. All the

17、typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolledshapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. Thedepth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, andthe need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuablespace, is minimized. The structural s

18、ystem has been used on the 54-storyOne Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had anearly start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concreteprogressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge tostructural steel systems

19、 for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut ApartmentBuilding. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m)centers, and interior columns were used as needed to

20、support the 8-in .-thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for officebuildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with anexterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of veryclosely spaced columns and an interior ri

21、gid shear wall tube enclosing thecentral service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tubesystem , made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714ft or218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell PlazaBuilding in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear

22、 wall structureof only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also beendeveloped, an examle of which is the composite system developed byskidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framedtube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining theadv

23、antages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on thissystem.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction inwhich steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buil

24、dings or engineering works, with the steel generally in theform of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped throughthe hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steelconstruction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S,U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, We

25、st German, France, and other steel producers inthe 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxicallyseveral decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and theSiemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to producesteel in quantities sufficient for structure

26、 use. Many of problems of steelconstruction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction,which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over theSevern River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work,in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron

27、ship hulls ,spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, andjioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smalleramounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance ofthe triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectivelyint

28、o iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, thosebearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used fortension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded

29、 bars, was developed as early as 1800;by1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet(5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palacefor the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to h

30、ave conceived the ideaof cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton forthe glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in theCrystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature areparticularly important in the history of metal construction; f

31、irst, the use oflatticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timberbridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; andsecond, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-ironcompression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first

32、 metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper UnionBuilding in New York. In the light of the principal market demand foriron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beamsclosely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes inthe 1850s an

33、d 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel forstructural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension andcompression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginativeengineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Eur

34、ope, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. LouisBridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used toform arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firthof Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12

35、 ft(3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and otherstructures were important in leading to the development and enforcementof standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack ofadequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis fortheoretical studies, l

36、imited the value of stress analysis during the earlyyears of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of acantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in themetal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design provedhighly practical even in the absence

37、of sophisticated analysis techniques.Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, withoutany special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise buildingwas demonstrated to the world by the Paris Expositio

38、n of 1889.for whichAlexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected anopenwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, butthe speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in

39、a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States anotherimportant development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William LeBaron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home InsuranceBuilding, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenneys beams wereBessemer steel, though hi

40、s columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintelssupporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported onthe cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls providedlateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type ofconstruction had been used in more than 30 office bui

41、ldings in Chicagoand New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with rivetedconnections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for windbracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical andhorizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floorlev

42、el, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at eachfloor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almostentirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industrywas worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, t

43、he basic structuralshapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes oflesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates ofseveral widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced throug

44、hhot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decadeby decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came theintroduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of

45、asafe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steelconstruction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) ,the 468-ft (143-m

46、) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) MetropolitanTower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio broughtproblems. To limit street congestion, building

47、 setback design wasprescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support wasstudied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower,was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight forillumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bendingr

48、esistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designedinto the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought atthe junction of the beams and columns. With todays modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads hasreturned; one notable

49、example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago,where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structuresfaade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had cometo be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the1920s New York saw a resumption of the heigh

50、t race, culminating in theEmpire State Building in the 1931. The Empire States 102 stories(1,250ft. 381m) were to keep it established as the hightest building inthe world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstratedhow thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. Ade

51、pot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter andtruck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derrickspowerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; anindustrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor.Initial connections were made

52、 by bolting , closely followed by riveting,followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in oneyear and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II providedanother interruption to steel construction development, but at the sametime the introduction of welding to

53、replace riveting provided an importantadvance. Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfullyachieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency shiprepairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limiteduntil after World War II. Another advance i

54、n the same area had been theintroduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., andJapan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different typesof structural steel under varying stresses, including those

55、exceeding theyield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This inturn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries,more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?Theintroduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, ma

56、defurther advances and savings possible.中文译文高层结构与钢结构作者：Collins Mark近年来,尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步,但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。最初的高层建筑设计是从钢结构的设计开始的。钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是比较经济的系统 , 被有效地运用于大批的民用建筑和商业建筑中。 50 层到 100 层的建筑被定义为超高层建 筑。而这种建筑在美国的广泛应用 是由于新的结构系统的发展和创新。更高的高度需要增加柱和梁的尺寸，以使建筑物更加坚硬，以便在风荷载下它们不会超出可接受的极限。过度的侧向摇摆可能会对隔板，

57、天花板造成严重的反复损坏。和其他建筑细节。此外，过度摇摆可能会导致建筑物的居住者感到不适，因为他们对这种运动的感知。钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统充分利用了整个建筑物固有的潜在刚度，因此需要额外的加强来限制摆动。例如，在钢结构中，经济可以用建筑物每平方英尺建筑面积的平均钢材总量来定义。图 1 中的曲线 A 表示随着故事数量增加的传统框架的平均单位重量。曲线 B 表示框架受到所有侧向载荷的保护时的平均钢重量。上边界和下边界之间的差距代表了传统的柱 - 梁框架的高度溢价。结构工程师已经开发了结构系统以消除这种溢价。钢铁系统。钢铁中的高层建筑是由于几种结构创新而发展起来的。这些创新已被应用于办公楼和公寓楼的

58、建设。带有刚性带桁架的框架。为了将框架结构的外部柱与内部垂直桁架相连，可以使用在建筑物中部和建筑物顶部的刚性带桁架系统。这个系统的一个很好的例子是密尔沃基的第一威斯康辛银行大楼（1974）。框架管。只有当所有的柱式构件可以相互连接时，才能达到抵抗风荷载的高层建筑的整体结构的最大效率，以使整个建筑物起中空管的作用，或者坚硬的箱子伸出地面。这种特殊的结构系统可能首次在 芝加哥的 43 层钢筋混凝土 DeWitt Chestnut 公寓大楼中使用。这个系统最重要的用途是纽约 110 层的世界贸易中心大楼的双层结构钢塔柱对角桁架管。建筑物的外部柱子可以相距很远，但是可以通过将它们与在柱和梁的中心线处有

59、趣的对角线成员连接在一起而制成管。这个简单却非常高效的系统首次在芝加哥的约翰汉考克中心使用，使用的钢材与传统 40 层建筑通常所需的一样多。捆绑管。随着对更大和更高建筑物的持续需求，框架管或柱对角桁架管可以以捆绑形式使用，以在保持高效率的同时形成更大的管封套。芝加哥的西尔斯罗巴克总部大楼 110 层有 9 根管子，捆绑在建筑物底部三排。其中一些独立管终止于建筑物的不同高度，展示了这种最新结构概念的无限建筑可能性。西尔斯大厦高 1450 英尺（442 米），是世界上最高的建筑。应力皮肤管系统。为了提高高层建筑的抗侧向力（风和地震）和控制漂移（侧向建筑物运动），开发了管道结构系统。应力表皮管使管系

60、更进一步。应力蒙皮管的开发利用建筑物的外墙作为与框架管作用的结构元件，从而提供抵抗高层建筑物中的侧向载荷的有效方式，并且导致经济高效的无柱内部净面积与建筑面积之比高的空间。由于应力皮肤立面的贡献，管的框架构件需要较少的质量，因此较轻且较便宜。所有典型的立柱和拱肩梁都是标准的卷形，最大限度地减少了特殊组合构件的使用和成本。外围伸缩梁的深度要求也降低了，并且需要高于地面的镦粗的梁，这会侵占有价值的空间，因此被最小化。该结构系统已用于匹兹堡 54 层的梅隆银行中心。 混凝土系统。虽然钢铁建造的高层建筑起步较早，但钢筋混凝土高层建筑的发展速度非常快，为办公楼和公寓建筑的结构钢系统提供了竞争激烈的挑战。