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1、第二章 提出临床需要解决的问题 (一)确定需要解决的问题 1、问题的来源 (1)诊断问题 怎样基于准确度、精确度、可接受性、费用及安全性等因素来选择和解释诊断试验,以便确定或排除某种诊断。 (2)病因问题 就具体某个患者而言,引起该病的原因可能有哪些? (3)预后问题 怎样估计病人可能的病程和预测可能的结局? (4)治疗问题 怎样为患者选择“利”大于“弊”并价有所值的治疗方法? (5)预防问题 怎样通过识别和纠正危险因素来减少疾病的发生及通过筛查来早期诊断,达到一、二级预防的目的? 2、问题的分类 (1)背景问题(background questions) 是关于疾病的一般性知识。如病因(包括
2、生物、心理、社会因素等)、病理、病生等方面的问题。 (2)前景问题(foreground questions) 是关于处理、治疗病人的专门知识问题,有时也涉及到与治疗及预后有关的生理、心理及社会因素等方面的问题。“背景”问题 对一种疾病的一般知识提出问题 包括两个基本成分 1、一个问题词根(谁、什么、何处、何时、怎样为何)加上一个动词 2、一种疾病或疾病的一个方面问题的构建 例如:“我患的是什么病?”“我怎么会得这种病?”“为什么引起发热?”等等。 前景问题(foreground questions) 对处理病人的特殊知识提出问题 需要考虑四大要素: P病人或人群(Patient/Popula
3、tion) I干预(Intervention) C比较干预(Comparison intervention) O临床结局(Outcomes)PICO模式Patient/PopulationOutcomeIntervention/ExposureComparison临床问题的组成PICO对无法手术切除的NSCLC对有后腹膜淋巴结转移的肝癌患者放疗基础上进行化疗放射治疗相比单纯的放疗相比化疗改善生存率?能否改善病人的生存质量食道癌的高危对象维生素矿物质空白对照减低食道癌的发生率提出临床问题: ask案例1: 皮肤感染 一个28岁男性,在过去8个月中反复发生疖病,应用过几个疗程的抗生素。 能否预防复
4、发?组织问题(PICO) Population :人群 复发性皮肤感染的病人Indicator (intervention, test, etc):干预 预防性的抗生素治疗Comparison:对照 对照不治疗Outcome:结果 降低复发率?案 例 2: 一个64岁男性肥胖病人,曾尝试过 无数减肥方法。看到报纸上有关 “瘦身夹克” Chitosan(聚氨基葡萄糖). 他问你的建议。 PICOPICO 问 题 Population 肥胖病人( obes* OR overweight ) Indicator chitosan 治疗 Comparison 对照安慰剂 Outcome 体重下降(de
5、crease weight OR kilogram*)问题1:抗凝剂对脑卒中病人有效吗?问题2:抗凝剂与不用抗凝剂相比能改善急性缺血性脑卒中病人的临床预后吗?干预措施病人类型干预措施对照措施病人类型临床结局(二)查找最佳证据 检索文献资料(三)严格评价临床研究证据结果是什么?结果是不是真实? 这些结果能否应用于我们的病?(临床价值与适用性) (四)综合分析证据,并用于临床决策 用最佳证据指导临床决策需要整合临床医生的实践经验和技能以及病人的的具体情况和期望。 (五)后效评价决策效果,不断提高临床决策水平和质量 1、后效评价的含义 用循证医学的后效评价是指对应用循证医学的理念从事医疗活动后的结果
6、进行评价,即评价解决患者具体临床问题后的结果。 2、后效评价的内容提出问题寻找证据评价证据应用证据后效评价循证医学实践的结果再评价问题的组成,以及是否反映了临床实际再评价各种标准的真实性、可靠性和实用性再评价证据在实际患者中的应用若不尽满意,则应再评价再评价检索策略的准确性和全面性 循证医学实践举例: 冠心病所致的急性心肌梗死(AMI)是心血管病的危重疾患,其病死率可达10%以上。如何提高临床疗效,降低病死率,改善患者的预后,是临床医生和患者极其关注的问题。近年来从急性心肌梗死的发病机制角度,临床应用链激酶作溶栓疗法进行了大量的治疗性研究。那么,根据不同的研究结果,能够证明这一疗法有效吗? 1
7、、提出问题 应用链激酶对急性心肌梗死患者进行溶栓治疗,能够降低其病死率吗? 2、文献检索 根据上述临床问题,确定检索文献的关键词: 急性心肌梗死溶栓疗法;RCT临床试验(并限定单个RCT含AMI1 000例) 共检索到9篇文献,总病例为58 600例。 3、严格评价文献 运用临床流行病学及循证医学有关治疗性研究证据的严格评价标准,对这9篇文献进行严格质量评价,并在此基础上进行系统评价,得出如下结论: (1)溶栓疗法治疗AMI的总体效果:如下表18(95%CI 3%23%)1.911.5对照组56 (95%CI 43%77%)9.6试验组救活一例需治疗病例数相对病死降低率(%)绝对病死降低率(%
8、)病死率(%)组别 (2)溶栓疗法治疗AMI分层分析的治疗效果:在该系统评价中,将AMI病例心电图具急性损伤ST段变化及伴室内阻滞两个亚组的治疗结果统计分析如下表:25AMI伴室内阻滞组21AMI伴急性ST抬高组相对病死降低率(%)组别 (3)溶栓疗法治疗AMI的时相效应结果: 该系统评价分析AMI发作后接受溶栓治疗,对降低病死率的时相效应作了具体分析,结果显示,如果晚治1小时,就会丢失生还率1.60.6;其中AMI发作在6小时内接受溶栓疗法者效果为最好,12小时后则疗效差。 4、指导临床决策 上述结果提示: (1)AMI患者应用溶栓疗法对降低该病病死率具有一定的临床价值; (2)AMI发作6
9、小时内接受溶栓疗法比晚用效果为好; (3)AMI伴有心电图ST抬高以及伴有室内阻滞者疗效相对更好; 这些证据需联系患者的具体临床特点参考应用。 5、在EBM实践中验证其效果,提高认识第三章 研究证据的分类、分级与推荐一. 研究证据的分类原始研究证据 指直接在受试者中进行单个有关病因、诊断、预防、治疗和预后等试验研究所获得的第一手数据,进行统计学处理、分析、总结后得出的结论。2. 二次研究证据 指尽可能全面收集某一问题的全部原始研究证据,进行严格评价、整合、分析、总结后所得出的综合结论,是对多个原始研究证据再加个后得到的证据。 系统评价 临床决策分析 临床证据手册 卫生技术评估 临床实践指南 二
10、、证据分级与推荐牛津大学循证医学中心标准GRADE标准 循证医学证据的分级水平及依据 推荐分级 证据水平 治疗、预防、病因的证据 A 1a RCTs的系统综述。 1b 单项RCT(95%Cl较窄)。 1c 满足全或无结果。即必须满足下列要求:(1) 用 传 统方法治疗患者全部残废或失败, 用新疗法有部分 患者存活或治愈;(2)用传统方法治疗,许多患者死 亡或治疗失败,用新疗法无一死亡或失败。 B 2a 队列研究的系统综述。 2b 单项队列研究(包括质量较差的RCT) 2c 结局研究。 3a 病例对照研究的系统综述。 3b 单项病例对照研究。 C 4 系列病例分析及质量较差的病例对照研究。 D
11、5 没有分析评价的专家意见。GRADE系统简介GRADE(Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation)是由2000年建立的GRADE工作组提出的一套评级系统。GRADE系统使用易于理解的方式评价证据质量和推荐等级,目前已被世界卫生组织(WHO)、Cochrane协作网等一批著名机构所采用。证据质量(GRADEpro)为达到透明和简化的目标, GRADE系统将证据质量分为高、 中、 低、 极低 4 级。一些使用GRADE系统的组织甚至把低和极低归为一级。推荐等级使用GRADE系统时,指南小组用“强推荐”表示他
12、们确信相关的干预措施利大于弊。用“弱推荐”表示干预措施有可能利大于弊,但他们把握不大。GRADE中的证据质量和推荐等级符号字母/数字证据质量 高质量A 中等质量B 低质量C 极低质量D决定证据质量的因素可能降低证据质量的因素研究的局限性结果不一致间接证据精确度不够发表偏倚可能增加证据质量的因素效应值很大可能的混杂因素会降低疗效剂量-效应关系研究设计与证据质量高:为不降级的随机试验和升 2 级的观察性研究; 中:为降级的随机试验和升 1 级的观察性研究; 低:降 2 级的随机试验和没有升降级的观察性研究; 非常低:降3级的随机试验、 降1级的观察性研究、 病例分析/病例报告。这些局限性包括(RC
13、Ts)隐藏分组缺失盲法缺失(特别是结局指标为主观性指标且对其的评估极易受偏倚影响时)失访过多未进行意向性分析、观察到疗效就过早终止试验或未报道结果(通常是未观察到疗效的一些研究)结果不一致( Inconsistency)Inconsistency may arise from differences in:populations (e.g. drugs may have larger relative effects in sicker populations) interventions (e.g. larger effects with higher drug doses) outcome
14、s (e.g. diminishing treatment effect with time)差异可能源于人群(如药物对重症人群的疗效可能相对显著)、干预措施(如较高药物剂量会使疗效更显著)或结局指标(如随时间推移疗效降低)。间接证据( Indirectness)There are two types of indirectness:1. Indirect comparison2. Indirect populationinterventioncomparatoroutcome精确度不够(Imprecision )当研究纳入的患者和观察事件相对较少而致可信区间较宽时,指南小组将降低该研究的证据
15、质量。A threshold rule-of-thumb valueTotal number of events is less than 300(dichotomous)Total population size is less than 400(continuous)发表偏倚( Publication bias )Publication bias arises when investigators fail to report studies they have undertaken (typically those that show no effect). Methods to det
16、ect the possibility of publication bias in systematic reviews exist, although authors of the reviews and guideline panels must often guess about the likelihood of publication bias. A prototypical situation that should elicit suspicion of publication bias occurs when published evidence is limited to
17、a small number of trials, all of which are showing benefits of the studied intervention.若研究者未能发表研究(通常是阴性结果的研究)时,证据质量亦会减弱。典型情况是当公开的证据仅局限于少数试验而这些试验全部由企业赞助,此时不得不质疑存在发表偏倚。Funnel Plot第四章 研究证据来源与检索 医学索引在线(Medline) 其中PubMed最常用, 其网址为: /PubMed/ 中国生物医学文献数据库 中国循证医学/Cochrance中心临床研究数据库 网址为: Cochrance图书馆(CL) 网址为:
18、 杂志 循证医学杂志(英) 提供临床医学最佳证据,为二次发表的文献摘要并加以专家评述。 网址:http:cemb.jrzox.ac.uk 美国内科医师学院杂志俱乐部 循证护理杂志 循证卫生保健杂志Clinical Evidence 由美国内科医学会和英国医学杂志联合主编的最佳研究证据集。网址:http:/products/clinicalevidence.cfmEBM 常用的中文数据库中国知网: 万方数据: 中文科技期刊数据库: 中国生物医学文献数据库(CBM)中国医院数字图书馆: 院内网址:58网址: 循证医学的网络资源 教育部循证医学网上合作中心: /教育部循证医学网上合作中心中山大学分中
19、心:(广州中心) / 教育部循证医学网上合作中心中医循证中心:(北京中心) /循证医学在线 EBM /循证医学 - 网络资源Cochrane协作网: Cochrane图书馆 Sumsearch网站(/searchform4.htm) TRIP Database 网站 Doctors Desk (英国国家保健服务系统) http:/drsdesk.sghms.ac.uk 研究证据的检索PICO 策略检索词的正确选择 主题词检索 关键词检索循证医学实践举例病例: 男性,45岁,有慢性乙肝史15年 因“乏力、腹胀、少尿2周”入院。 初步诊断: 慢性乙肝,肝硬化 胃镜发现“食管静脉中度曲张” 。提出问
20、题: 食管静脉曲张首次破裂出血的危险性有多少? 什么预防措施最好?寻找证据: 检索了中国医院数字图书馆, Cochrane图书馆,EMbace, PubMed等电子信息资源。 关键词: 门脉高压,食管静脉曲张,预防措施 “portal hypertension” “esophageal variceal bleeding”, “medical and surgical prevention”. 结 果:(1) 首次出血危险性(既往无出血史者): 破裂出血的发生率- 4.4% 首次出血的病死率- 25%-50% 首次出血的危险因子(risk factors)- 肝功能损害程度 曲张静脉的大小 内
21、镜下存在红色特征 肝静脉压力梯度值(HVPG) 1.6kPa(12mmHg) (2) 预防首次出血的临床随机对照试验 分流手术与无特殊治疗间的比较: 不理想 Meta-分析(4项RCT): 出血的发生率明显降低(OR 0.31), 但生存率降低, 病死率提高(OR1.6)。慢性或复发性脑病明显增加(OR2.0) 硬化剂治疗与无特殊治疗间的比较 : 无结果 Meta-分析( 20项临床试验): 各研究在治疗指征和控制出血及死亡的疗效方面存在明显的异源性.曲张静脉套扎术与无特殊治疗的比较 : 好 最新Meta-分析( 5项临床试验): 首次出血 的OR( 95CI) 为0.36 (0.260.50
22、) ,NNT 为4.1。受体阻滞剂治疗与无特殊治疗的比较:好 Meta-分析( 9项临床试验 ): 排除1项异质性研究后,减少出血的OR 0.54(0.390.74) ,NNT:11。死亡率降低的 OR 0.75( 0.571.06) 。严格评价证据: 用治疗性实验研究的质量评价标准对上述研究进行评价,结果是文章的真实性和可靠性都很好。应用证据: 这个研究纳入的患者与该患者相似。医师将这些最新研究结果告知患者后,患者感到很满意。防止初次出血的发生(结论):1.受体阻滞剂: 首选: 便宜,简单,防止胃黏膜出血。2.曲张静脉套扎术: 安全的治疗,受体阻滞剂禁忌证或不能耐受患者的替代措施。3.分流手
23、术: 预防出血,但增加病死率和肝性脑病。4.硬化剂治疗: 疗效较差,费用昂贵,有潜在危险性。Case example: Using EBM as a support1. The patientPauline is a new patient who recently moved to the area to be closer to her son and his family. She is 67 years old and has a history of congestive heart failure brought on by several myocardial infarctio
24、ns. She has been hospitalized twice within the last 6 months for worsening of heart failure. At the present time she remains in normal sinus rhythm. She is extremely diligent about taking her medications (enalapril, aspirin and simvastatin) and wants desperately to stay out of the hospital. She live
25、s alone with several cats.You think she should also be taking digoxin but you are not certain if this will help keep her out of the hospital. You decide to research this question before her next visit. Pauline2. Focusing the question-PICO It is to take the identified problem and construct a question
26、 that is relevant to the case and is phrased in such a way as to facilitate finding an answer. This is called constructing a well built clinical question. Patient or problem-PHow would you describe a group of patients similar to yours? What are the most important characteristics of the patient? This
27、 may include the primary problem, disease, or co-existing conditions. Sometimes the sex, age or race of a patient might be relevant to the diagnosis or treatment of a disease. Intervention -IWhich main intervention, prognostic factor, or exposure are you considering? What do you want to do for the p
28、atient? Prescribe a drug? Order a test? Order surgery? What factor may influence the prognosis of the patient? Age? Co-existing problems? What was the patient exposed to? Cigarette smoke? Patient / Problemcongestive heart failure, elderlyInterventiondigoxin Companone, placebo Outcomeprimary: reduce
29、need for hospitalization; secondary: reduce mortality Comparison-CWhat is the main alternative to compare with the intervention? Are you trying to decide between two drugs, a drug and no medication or placebo, or two diagnostic tests? Your clinical question does not always need a specific comparison
30、. Outcomes-OWhat can you hope to accomplish, measure, improve or affect? What are you trying to do for the patient? Relieve or eliminate the symptoms? Reduce the number of adverse events? Improve function or test scores? The structure of the question might look like this: Patient / Problemcongestive
31、 heart failure, elderlyInterventiondigoxin Comparison, if anynone, placebo Outcomeprimary: reduce need for hospitalization; secondary: reduce mortalityFor our patient, the clinical question might be: In elderly patients with congestive heart failure, is digoxin effective in reducing the need for reh
32、ospitalization? It is a therapy question and the best evidence would be a randomized controlled clinical trial. 3. the literature search The practice of Evidence-based Medicine advocates that clinicians search the published literature to find answers to their clinical questions. There are literally
33、millions of published reports, journal articles, correspondence and studies available to clinicians. Choosing the best resource to search is an important decision. Select a resource 8000 articles published per day30 Kg of guidelines per family dactor25,000 biomedical journals in print1500 medical ar
34、ticles onto Medline per daySearching primary resourcesTypes of study -original research,reports of experiments(eg surveys,observational studies,randomized controlled trials) Large databases such as MEDLINE will give you access to the primary literature. Secondary resources such as ACP Journal Club,
35、POEMS, Clinical Inquiries, and Clinical Evidence, will provide you with an assessment of the original study. The Cochrane Library provides access to systematic reviews which help summarize the results from a number of studies.Where and how to find them? Databases MEDLINE Produced by the U.S. Nationa
36、l Library of Medicine, the MEDLINE database contains over 11 million references to journal articles in life sciences with a concentration on biomedicine. MEDLINE is available free of charge, via PubMed, from the National Library of Medicine. It is also available for a fee from several providers incl
37、uding Ovid Technologies and Aries Knowledge Finder. Access PubMed at: The Cochrane Library The Cochrane Library consists of several electronic databases: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Cochrane Reviews) provides access to regularly updated, systematic reviews, maintained by the various Coc
38、hrane Review Groups.Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE)Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials Cochrane Database of Methodology Reviews For more information see Cochrane Library at /reviews/clibintro.htm Formulate the strategy Step 1: Search each important concept separately. Y
39、ou want to be sure it found the appropriate MeSH Terms and Text Words. PubMed attempts to map your term to an appropriate Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) Step 2: Combine the separate sets of articles Step 3: Limit the results to the appropriate publication type, language and human Review the results4
40、.There are three basic questions that need to be answered for every type of study: Are the results of the study valid? What are the results? Will the results help in caring for my patient?1. Randomization: Was the assignment of patients to treatment randomized?Yes No 2. Patient follow-up: Were all p
41、atients who entered the trial properly accounted and attributed for at its conclusion? Yes No 3. Analysis of patients: Were patients analyzed in the groups to which they were randomized? Yes No Are the results of the study valid? 4. Blinding: Were patients, health workers, and study personnel blind
42、to treatment? Yes No 5. Baseline characteristics of patients: Were groups similar at the start of the trial? Yes No 6. Treatments: Aside from the experimental intervention, were the groups treated equally? Yes No Conclusions: Digoxin did not affect mortality but reduced hospitalizations in patients
43、with heart failure and normal sinus rhythm.Outcomes: Outcome Digoxin Placebo RRR ARR NNT Mortality 34.8% 35.1% nonsignificant p=0.08 Total hospitalization 64.3% 67.1% 4.1% 2.8% 36 hospitalization for CHF 27% 35% 23% 8% 13 hospitalization for CV causes 49.9% 54.4% 8.3% 4.5% 22 5. Return to the patien
44、t - integrate that evidence with clinical expertise, patient preferences and apply it to practiceThe study population appears to be similar enough to Pauline that we can consider the results applicable to her case. The results of this study indicate that digoxin can reduce the need for hospitalizati
45、ons in patients with heart failure and normal sinus rhythm. Digoxin may be an appropriate therapy to help keep Pauline at home and out of the hospital. However, if Pauline elects to be treated with digoxin, there will be a need to monitor therapy, draw frequent drug levels, and hold the risk of toxi
46、city. For Pauline, these issues may be offset by the possible benefit of avoidance of hospitalization. 6. Self-evaluationEvaluate your performance with this patientTake a moment to reflect on how well you were able to conduct the steps in the EBM Process. EBM CycleGENERATE THE QUESTIONCONDUCT THE SE
47、ARCHAPPRAISE DIRECTNESSAPPRAISE VALIDTYAPPRAISE RESULTSAPPRAISEAPPLICABILITYINDIVIDUALIZERESULTSCase 1: Therapy for Strep Throat The Patient1. Start with the patient - a clinical problem or question arises out of the care of the patient.Henry is an active 5 year old boy. His mother brought him in fo
48、r a check-up because Henry has had a fever and a sore throat for several days. You suspect Strep and take a throat culture. The standard treatment for Streptococcal Pharyngitis is oral Penicillin three times a day. However, for Henry and his mother, you are concerned about compliance and the expense of
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