文本文稿教案lecture three

1、People and OrganizationsLecture Three: Perception and Attribution TheoryPerceptionPerception deals with the ways in which people interpret things and how they act on the basis of these perceptions.Has important effects on job satisfaction and motivation which, in turn, can sometimes lead to better j

2、ob performance.Perception: the importance ofAspects of perception important to managers:Perceptual distortions and problemsHow people attribute causes to eventsComponents of PerceptionPerceiverTarget/PerceivedSituation/SettingWhat do they see?The optimist says the glass is half full. The pessimist s

3、ays the glass is half empty.What do you see? Are you an optimist? Or are you a pessimist? What do I see?I am a realist! The the glass contains half the required amount of liquid before it is full. But I am also a cynicWho drunk the other half?My personal favourite is A Gestalt psychologist would say

4、 that the glass is entirely full, of the visible and the invisible.Another funny oneThe call-centre operator asks if youd mind holding while she finds out for you. Your call is important to them. How Closely Do Perceptions Agree?A StoryActivity GuideRead the 15 statements about the story and check e

5、ach to indicate whether you consider it to be true, false or?T means that the statement is definitely true on the basis of the information presented in the story.F means that it is definitely false.? means that it may be either true or false and that you cannot be certain of which on the basis of th

6、e information presented in the story. If any part of a statement is doubtful, mark it ?.Answer each statement in turn. Then compare with the person next to you, but do not change anything.The storyA businessman had just turned off the lights in the store when a man appeared and demanded money. The o

7、wner opened a cash register. The contents of the cash register were scooped up and the man sped away. A member of the police force was notified promptly.Answers to the statements1. ? Do you know that the businessman and the owner are one and the same?2. ? Was there necessarily a robbery involved her

8、e? Perhaps the man was the rent collector or the owners son they sometimes demand money.3. F4. ? Was the owner a man?5. ? May seem unlikely but the story does not definitely preclude it.Answers to the statements6. T Story says the owner opened the cash register.7. ? We do not know who scooped up the

9、 contents of the cash register or that the man necessarily ran away.8. ? The dependent clause is doubtful the cash register may or may not have contained money.9. ? Again, a robber?10. ? Could the man merely have appeared at a door or window but did not actually enter thestore?Answers to the stateme

10、nts11. ? Stores generally keep lights on during the day.12. ? Could not the man who appeared have been the owner?13. F Story says the man who appeared demanded money.14. ? Are the businessman and the owner one and the same or two different people? Same goes for the owner and the man who appeared.15.

11、 ? Dashed? could he not have sped away on roller skates or in a car? And do we know that he actually left the store? We do not even know that he entered it.DebriefHow would you explain differences in individual perceptions of the same statement?On what basis did the person next to you give different

12、 answers and how did their perception of the statements about the story differ?To what extent can you be absolutely certain about anything?DebriefThis exercise helps draw attention to the following points:differences in individual perceptions of the same statement;distinctions between fact (a defini

13、tely true or definitely false statement) and assumptions/inferences; too much can be assumed from limited informationDebriefthe need to consider judgments very carefully;not to make hasty decisions before thinking fully about the situation.The Accuracy of PerceptionsNot always accuratePerceptions ar

14、e critical for managerial functionsMotivating subordinatesTreating subordinates fairly and equitablyMaking ethical decisionsAccuracy can be improved by understanding what perceptions arehow they are formedwhat influences themPerceptionPerceived reality, not actual reality, is the key to understandin

15、g behaviour. How we perceive others and ourselves is at the root of our actions and intentions. Understanding the perceptual process and being aware of its complexities can help develop insights about ourselves and may help in reading others.PerceptionThe significance of individual differences is pa

16、rticularly apparent when focusing on the process of perception. We are all unique to a large extent, we all see things in different ways, and we all have our own way of looking at and understanding our environment and the people within it. A situation may be the same but the interpretation of that s

17、ituation by two individuals may differ vastly ( i.e. a half full/empty glass)What is Perception?The process of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting sensory informationPerceptual information is gathered from:SightHearingTouchTasteSmellFactors affectin

18、g an individuals perceptual setWhat Do You See?Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the TargetCharacteristics of the SituationSchemasAmbiguitySalienceMotivational stateSocial statusMoodUse of impression managementFactors That Influence PerceptionCharacteristics of the perceiverThe perc

19、eptual process is influenced by the perceivers:Past experiencesNeeds or motivesPersonalityValues and attitudesThink how these things affect your perception of me- trying to get you to participate in your learning.SchemasAbstract knowledge structures that are stored in memoryResponsible for the organ

20、ization and interpretation of information about targets of perceptionBased on past experiences and knowledgeResistant to changeThink about this- you might have a schema about what you think education is about.The Functionality of SchemasFunctionalSchemas help us make sense of a confusing array of se

21、nsory input, choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide perceptions of ambiguous informationDysfunctionalSchemas can result in inaccurate perceptionsDysfunctional Schemas: StereotypesSet of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristic

22、s of a particular group.Often leads to prejudice and discrimination.Educational stereotypes.Motivational State and MoodMotivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.Mood: How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.These things will definitely affect

23、 your perception of this class!Characteristics of the Target: AmbiguityA lack of clearness or definiteness ( i.e. is the glass half full or empty?)As the ambiguity of a target increases, it es increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perceptionWhen a target is ambiguous, the percei

24、ver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the targetThe more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perceptionCharacteristics of the Target: Social StatusA persons real or perceived position in society or in

25、an organization.Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.When looks can countCipriani and Zago looked at the exam results of 885 economics students in Verona, Italy, over three

26、 years. They discovered that those who were more beautiful than others performed much better in their exams than those who were not so good looking. It may be, that those who are more beautiful are given more attention by teachers and therefore a greater chance to excel.Impression managementA person

27、s systematic attempt to behave in ways that create and maintain desired impressions in others eyes.Successful managers:Use impression management to enhance their own images.Are sensitive to other peoples use of impression management.Impression Management TacticsBehavioralMatchingThe target of percep

28、tion matcheshis or her behavior to that of theperceiver.A subordinate tries to imitate her bosssbehavior by being modest and soft-spokenbecause her boss is modest and soft-spoken.Self-PromotionThe target tries to present herselfor himself in as positive a light aspossible.A worker reminds his boss a

29、bout his past plishments and associates with co-workers who are evaluated highly.Conformingto SituationalNormsThe target follows agreed-uponrules for behavior in the organization.A worker stays late every night even if she hascompleted all of her assignments becausestaying late is one of the norms o

30、f her organization.Appreciatingor FlatteringOthersThe target compliments the per-ceiver. This tactic works best whenflattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension importantto the perceiver.A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.BeingConsistentT

31、he targets beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreementbetween the targets verbal andnonverbal behaviors.A subordinate delivering a message to his bosslooks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.Characteristics of the Situation: SalienceExtent to which a t

32、arget of perception stands out in a group of people or thingsCauses of salienceBeing novel: Anything that makes a target unique in a situation (e.g., being the only young person)Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes)Being inconsistent with other peoples exp

33、ectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinaryCauses of SalienceBeing novelAnything that makes a target unique in a situationExamples: Being the only person of a particular age, sex, or race in a situationBeing figuralStanding out from the background Example: Being in a spotligh

34、t, sitting at the head of the table, wearing bright clothesBeing Inconsistent with other peoples expectationsBehaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinaryExample: A normally shy person who isthe life of the partyBiases and Problems in PerceptionPrimacyEffectsThe initial pieces of informat

35、ion that a perceiver has about a target have an inordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of the target.Interviewers decide in the first few minutes of an interview whether or not a job candidate is a good prospect.ContrastEffectThe perceivers perceptions of others influe

36、nce the perceivers perception of a target.A managers perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers.HaloEffectThe perceivers general impression of a target influences his or her pe

37、rception of the target on specific dimensions.A subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines regardless of work that is full of mistakes and late.Biases and Problems in PerceptionSimilar-to-me EffectPeople pe

38、rceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar.Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar to them more positively than they deserve.Harshness,Leniency, AverageTendencySome perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly

39、 lenient. Others view most targets as being about average.When rating subordinates performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as being aboutaverage.Knowledgeof PredictorKnowing how a target stands on a p

40、redictor of performance influences perceptions of the target.A professor perceives a student more positively than she deserves because the professor knows the student had high scores previously.Attribution TheoryDescribes how people explain the causes of behaviourFocuses on why people behave the way

41、 they doAttributions can be made about the self or another personBiases reduce the accuracy of attributionsInsert Figure 4.3 hereTypes of AttributionsInternal and External attributions Factors influencing internal and external attributions.Distinctiveness consistency of a persons behavior across sit

42、uations.Consensus likelihood of others responding in a similar way.Consistency whether an individual responds the same way across time.Attribution BiasesFundamental attribution error - tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causesActor-observer effect - tendency to attribute others behavior to internal causes but ones own behavior to external causesSelf-serving attribution - tendency to take credit for successes but avoid blame for failuresAn example attribution bias: the self-fulfilling prophecyThink about the dangers self-fulfilling proph