认知心理学课件第一章-认知心理学绪论

1、湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系认知心理学COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY主讲教师: 钟毅平博士 授课对象: 心理学专业参考书介绍 王更生, 汪安圣的认知心理学 北京大学出版社,1992年4月,共11章梁宁建著.当代认知心理学, 上海教育出版社,2003年.共12章参考书介绍R L,Solso的认知心理学 邵志芳等译(据2005年第7版),上海人民出版社,2008年,共16章Eysenck M.W &Keane M.T著,高定国,肖晓云译.认知心理学(第4版), 华东师范大学出版社,2004年.共19章Eysenck M.W &Keane M.T著,高定国,何凌南译.认知心理学(第

2、5版), 华东师范大学出版社,2009年.共18章第一章 绪论 (Overview)第一节 认知心理学：概述、起源和隐喻 一、认知心理学的概述 二、认知心理学的起源 三、认知心理学的隐喻第二节 人的信息加工系统 一、信息加工系统 二、人的信息加工系统第一章 绪论 (Overview)第一节 认知心理学：概述、起源和隐喻一、认知心理学的概述（一）、认知心理学的涵义1、1967年，美国心理学奈塞尔（Neisser）出版了名为认知心理学的专著，标志着认知心理学的确立。 在书中他认为认知心理学是研究信息经感觉输入的转换、加工、存储、恢复、提取与使用的过程，他把认知心理学划分为视认知、听认知和记忆与思维

3、高层次心理过程三大部分。2、20世纪80年代，完整的认知心理学体系基本形成。以人的认知过程为研究对象。第一节 概述、起源和隐喻研究低层次认知过程时，采用速视法、分听法、目标搜索法研究高层次认知过程时，采取口语报告法、内容分析法、分析法近十年来，更多地采用计算机技术，以及脑成像技术和脑神经科学新的理论和新的技术，为认知心理学的研究提供了十分有效的新手段3、20世纪90年代开始融入联结主义思想，大大促进了认知心理学对人的心理过程微观结构的探索第一节 概述、起源和隐喻4、广义的认知心理学主要探讨人类内部的心理活动过程、个体认知的发生与发展，以及对人的心理事件、心理表征和信念、意向等心理活动的研究5、

4、狭义的认知心理学是以信息加工理论观点为核心的心理学，以个体的心理结构与心理过程为研究对象，探讨人类认知的信息加工过程6、认知心理学是研究人的高级心理活动过程的学科，即研究人接受、编码、操作、提取、和利用知识的过程，这个过程包括知觉、语言、智能、表象、思维、推理、问题解决、概念形成和创造性（美国百科全书，1980）第一节 概述、起源和隐喻7、对认知活动的三种理解认知活动是人脑对信息的加工过程认知活动是人脑对符号的处理过程认知活动是问题解决过程它们都是当代认知心理学的基本观点，其共同的认识为，人类认知活动过程不是一个被动地接受或加工信息、符号和解决问题的过程，而是一个主动地、积极地加工和处理输入信

5、息、符号与解决问题的动态系统The word cognition is derived from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning “to know” or “to come to know”.Cognition is therefore the activities and processes concerned with the acquisition, storage, retrieval and processing of knowledge.What is Cognitive Psychology?It is the scientific stud

6、y of how the mind works“.cognitive psychology deals with how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information.” Sternberg (1999)“Cognitive psychology is the study of processes underlying mental events” Solso (2005)What do cognitive psychologists study?MemoryDecision MakingAttentionPerce

7、ptionLearningNeurobiologyCognitive Development Concept FormationEmotionArtificial IntelligenceLanguageProblem SolvingMental Imagery Animal CognitionThings which cognitive psychologists may seek to explain. . .Why do we find it difficult to describe how to tie a shoelace without moving our hands or l

8、ooking at our shoes?Things which cognitive psychologists may seek to explain. . .What processes are involved in planning a novel route through familiar terrain. (e.g. How do I get from to via )第一节 概述、起源和隐喻8、认知心理学的兴起对心理学分支学科的影响对探讨人的心理活动过程的研究领域的扩大从心理物理函数的收集走向对人的内部心理机制的提示从分析性研究转向综合性研究重视个别差异、社会文化差异以及对个案

9、的研究（二）人类的认知系统及其特征 1、人类的认知系统人由两大系统组成，一个是维持生存的系统，它涉及到人类的情绪、需要、动机、意志以及维持生命与延续生命的部分另一个是认知的系统，它涉及到个体获取知识和经验的内部心理操作过程，以及个体学习与运用知识的过程这两个系统相互联系、相互作用（见图1-1）2、人类认知系统的基本特征第一，人是一个符号运算系统。人类具有接收、存储、加工和运用符号（语言、文字、记号）的功能与能力。动物只具有对信号作出简单条件反射的行为，两者不仅存在数量上的差别，而且还呈现出质上的差异2、人类认知系统的基本特征第二，人类的认知系统是一个多阶段、多层次的信息传递系统。感觉登记、模式

10、识别、短时记忆系统、长时记忆系统、注意第三，人类信息加工能力的有限性。研究表明，在感觉登记、注意、记忆等方面都存在一定限度2、人类认知系统的基本特征第四，人是一个具有习得与发展有效认知策略的系统。认知策略可以提高一个人对信息加工与处理的效率，并能够遵循科学的认知活动规律，去知觉、记忆、思维和解决问题，以取得事半功倍的良好效果2、人类认知系统的基本特征第五，人是一个新旧图式整合、建构、重构而获得知识的系统。新旧知识有机联结的两种方式：同化和顺应。它们是一个人拥有层次性和累积性知识的原因，也是一个人能够在认知系统中存储知识的基本特性第六，人是一个不断发展的监控认知系统。元认知第一节 概述、起源和隐

11、喻二、认知心理学的起源（一）认知心理学兴起的内部原因A. 结构主义与机能主义 ( Structuralism & Functionalism) 前者如冯特(Wilhelm Wundt)(内省法,Introspection), 关心怎么样;后者如詹姆斯(William James),关心为什么.B. 行为主义(Behaviorism) 华生,斯金纳等, 心理表征(mental representation)C. 格式塔心理学(Gestalt psychology)D、托尔曼引入中介变量，主张对行为进行心理分析湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Antecedent PhilosophiesEmp

12、iricism: Locke, Hume, Stuart Millemphasis: Experience / learningkey is the association between experiencesNativism: Plato, Descartes, Kantemphasis: that which is innate湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Antecedents of Cognitive PsychologyIndividual DifferencesSir Francis Galton (1822-1911)Intellige

13、nce, morals & personality were innateWanted to measure these individual differencesGeneral issue: Individual differences vs. group studies湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Antecedents of Cognitive PsychologyStructuralismWilhelm Wundt (1879) & Edward B. TitchenerFocus: elemental components of mind; describe consciou

14、s experience in terms of: mode, quality, intensity and durationMethod: IntrospectionReport on the basic elements of consciousnessNot Internal perception but experimental self observationMust be done in laboratory under controlled conditionsIntrospection should reveal workings of the unconscious湖南师范大

15、学 教育科学学院 心理学系Antecedents of Cognitive PsychologyFunctionalismWilliam James (1890)Focus: why does the mind work as it does? Function more important than contentMethod: Introspection in natural settingsMust study the whole organism in real-life situationsMust get out of the laboratory!ExperimentationC

16、omparative study of men, animals “and savages”湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Antecedents of Cognitive PsychologyGestalt PsychologyMax Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler (1911)Focus: on the holistic aspects of conscious experience; what order is imposed in perceptionThe key question is: what are the rules b

17、y which we parse the world into wholes?Method: IntrospectionExperience simply described as given, never analyzed (e.g., I see a book)Kohler湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Figure 1-1 (p. 11)Examples of Gestalt figures. Although (A), (B), and (C) all contain eight equal lines, most people experien

18、ce them differently, seeing (A) as four pairs of lines, (B) as eight unrelated lines, and (C) as a circle made up of eight line segments.湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系 Antecedents of Cognitive PsychologyBehaviourism E.g., Watson, Skinner (1930s)evolved as a reaction to the lack of progress usi

19、ng introspection; it rejected introspectionunfortunately it threw the baby out with the bathwaterbecame unfashionable to talk about mental representations, consciousness, mental stateslearning was emphasized, as was the relationship between inputs (stimuli) and outputs (responses)motivation湖南师范大学 教育

20、科学学院 心理学系“Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness wi

21、th which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness . . . . What we need to do is start work upon psychology making behavior, not consciousness, the objective point of our attack.”(Watson, 1913, pp.158, 176)湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Behaviorism died because: It failed

22、 to adequately explain languageSkinner (1957): children learn language by imitation and reinforcement (behaviourism)Chomsky (1959): questioned operant conditioning explanation of languageChildren say sentences they never heard (“I hate you mommy”)They use incorrect grammar (“the boy hitted the ball”

23、) even though it is not reinforcedThe Death of Behaviorism湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Behaviorism died because: Could not explain failure to condition behaviors that went against animals instinctsE.g., it is difficult to train raccoons to drop coins into piggy bank they rub them insteadShows importance of bio

24、logically programmed behaviorMotivated psychologists to get out of the labThe Death of Behaviorism湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Behaviorism died because: Localization of function in the brain forced discussion of mindDonald Hebb: some functions (e.g., perception) is based on cell assembliesHubel & Weisel: demon

25、strated importance of early experience on development of nervous system (e.g., cats with early experience of horizontal lines failed to later perceive vertical lines)The Death of Behaviorism湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Behaviorism died because: In general:people refused to accept the idea that mental represent

26、ations did not existpeople came to accept that mental events and states could be studied scientificallyThe Death of Behaviorism湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Behaviourism as a THEORY diedbehaviourism as a METHODOLOGY survived and thrives today with its emphasis on rigorously controlled experiments and sophistica

27、ted analysis, replication, etcDeath of Behaviourism湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Human factors engineering presented new problems E.g., BroadbentDuring war time: equipment design required knowledge of human cognitionFocus: what is the most optimal way to design a machine for human useE.g., pilots landing airpla

28、nesE.g., vigilance while monitoring the radar screenThe “Cognitive Revolution”湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Communications engineering provided new conceptsExchange of information through channels (telegraph writers, phone lines)People as limited capacity processors of informationThe “Cognitive Revolution”湖南师范大

29、学 教育科学学院 心理学系Development of computers and artificial intelligence gave a dominant metaphorThe computer metaphor: The comparison of peoples cognitive activities to an operating computerPeople seen as composed of input, processing, storage and output devices.The “Cognitive Revolution”湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学

30、系The “Cognitive Revolution”Marked by 2 influential books:Broadbents (Perception and Communication, 1958)Neissers (Cognitive Psychology, 1967)湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系The “Cognitive Revolution”researchers started to see that they were asking common questions:how is information acquired, processed, stored, a

31、nd transmittedhow information is represented 湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Information ProcessingThe emphasis here is on: information FLOW through the organismnature of the representationsnature of the processes that operate on these representationsits notable also for what it neglects-”attention” (a core area

32、of research in cognitive psychology)湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Retinal ImageProcessingMoreProcessingConsciousnessStorageNeisser, 1976Still moreProcessing湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Figure 1-4 (p. 29)A typical information-processing model.第一节 概述、起源和隐喻（二）现代科学技术对认知心理学的巨大影响1、语言学：乔姆斯基的语言转换理论语言获得(Language acquisition) 实例:CH

33、ILD: Nobody dont like me.MOTHER: No,say,“Nobody likes me”(重复八次后)M: No,now listen carefully;say,“Nobody likes me”C: Oh! Nobody dont likes me.第一节 概述、起源和隐喻2、信息论思想的渗透，为信息加工心理学的产生与发展奠定了基础申农用图表示信息的传输过程第一节 概述、起源和隐喻 认知心理学从申农的通讯科学理论中引入了以下概念：第一，信息装置第二，信息编码第三，通道容量第四，系列加工和平行加工（连续的过程和平行的过程）第一节 概述、起源和隐喻3、计算机科学是当代

34、认知心理学产生与发展的最重要条件计算机对逻辑符号的操作与运用和人在思维时对语言、符号的操作与运用之间具有类似之处，从而在形式上把心理活动理解为对符号的操纵或加工过程西蒙和纽韦尔提出，可以把计算机和人脑这两者的内部工作当作符号操纵系统或符号计算系统来看待第一节 概述、起源和隐喻三、认知心理学的隐喻认知心理学的发展，主要体现在研究范式的演变方面目前有两大研究范式或两大研究纲要：符号操作系统范式与联结主义范式（一）符号操作系统范式又称为信息处理模型、符号处理模型、串行处理模型计算机隐喻是该范式确立的前提和基石即把计算机作为人脑功能的一种心理学模型，从中引申出人的认知过程或心理活动是一种“计算”的观念

35、Cognitive Psychology in a NutshellThe problem in a nutshell: why sometimes your reaction is guided by understanding the stimulus not but the stimulus itself? You cant predict behavior focusing only on the stimulusCognitive modeling of the black (“mind”) boxThe mind does not exist or is irrelevant Th

36、e Roots of Cognitive RevolutionThe intellectual developments that paved the way for Cognitive Psychology began in the 40s. Behaviorism reached his impasse: If we wish to predict behavior we need to make reference to the mental world! Noam Chomsky rejected behaviorist assumptions about language as a

37、learned habit and proposed instead to explain language comprehension in terms of mental grammars consisting of rules. George Millers magic number: Miller summarized numerous studies which showed that the capacity of human thinking (short-term memory) is limited. He proposed that memory limitations c

38、an be overcome by recoding information into chunks.The Roots of Cognitive RevolutionDuring the same time (1950-1960), pioneers such as John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon were founding the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). (AI is a term that indicates the ability of a

39、computer system to perform the same kinds of functions that characterize human thought). Cognitive Science and H. SimonIn response to AI, psychologists began to formulate a new approach to study human mind. The idea was to explore a particular analogy suggested by the work in AI that Mind is to brai

40、n as program is to computer and that Minds are essentially program like entities that run on brains instead of computers. The computer as metaphor Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology Information Processing ApproachThe closely related idea that mental activity could be described as information

41、processing emerged in psychology: Mind is to brain as program is to computer Information can be processed and stored (remembered) in the brain, retrieved, changed, communicated and turned into action. There are rules (logical or otherwise) by which information is manipulated or processed. As a resul

42、t of the paradigm shift often referred to as the cognitive revolution, information processing has now replaced Behaviorism as the dominant force in psychology (meeting at MIT, 1956).Cognitive RevolutionLimitations of the computer metaphorThe metaphor maybe broadly correct but unhelpful because there

43、 maybe a diversity of processing models constructed on a different principles which will explain any given data set. Unfortunately, what computer do well, humans do poor, and what humans do well computer do stupidly or not at all. （一）符号操作系统范式符号：泛指代表、表示或意指他物的一切东西（纽韦尔，西蒙）。所谓符号就是模式，任何一个模式只要它能和其他模式相区别，它

44、就是一个符号。如英文字母、书上的文字符号、空间中的光波和声波。既可以是物理的符号，也可以是人脑中抽象的符号，如言语、表象等符号具有双重属性：一是具有表征外部事物的功能，二是其自身具有物理或形式上的特征，可以标志信息加工的操作。符号操作系统把人类所具有的观念、能力以及脑内加工的过程，看作是一系列的符号及其运作的事件完整的符号操作系统应具备以下六种功能第一，输入符号（输入）第二，存储符号（储藏）第三，建立符号结构第四，条件性迁移（条件传递）第五，复制符号（复制）第六，输出符号（输出）如果具有以上六种功能，它就能表现出智能的特征符号操作系统范式的三点推论：第一，既然人具有智能，它就一定是一个完整的符

45、号操作系统第二，既然计算机是一个完整的符号操作系统，它就能够表现出某种智能第三，既然人是一个完整的符号操作系统，计算机也是，那么就能够用计算机来模拟人的认知活动过程计算机程序表现出来的功能与人的认知活动相类比为： 人类认知活动 计算机生理过程（中枢神经系统、神经元、脑的活动）计算机硬件初级信息加工处理计算机语言思维过程程序最主要的认知模型1、通用问题解决程序（GPS），纽韦尔和西蒙设计，启发式程序，手段目的分析方法2、初级知觉和记忆程序（EPAM），费根鲍姆设计，把人的记忆程序分为两个步骤：操作和学习最主要的认知模型3、人类联想记忆（HAM），安德森和鲍威尔提出，先分析简单的命题句子，存储器保

46、持，新句子与“网络知识库”4、思维的适应性控制（ACT），安德森提出的有关一般性知识存储的认知模型，知识的组成和表象概念的激活过程，陈述性知识和程序性知识进行区分（前者的表征是“组块”，后者是“产生式系统”（二）联结主义范式20世纪80年代，联结主义范式逐渐形成，并对信息加工的认知心理学理论及其相关的元理论提出了许多不同的看法，大大促进了对人类心理活动过程的精细研究联结主义认为，人类的认知活动的本质在于神经元之间的联结强度，以及它们之间不断发生的动态变化，即对信息进行的是并行分布式的加工处理，这种联结与处理是连续变化的模拟计算，它不同于对物理符号的模拟计算湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系C

47、onnectionism (parallel distributed processing PDP)Representational assumption: simple neuron-like elements code patterns of activation across a large population of such elements (Neural networks)these units are connected by weights that are modifiable by learningPositively weighted lead to activatio

48、nNegatively weighted lead to inhibitionThings (e.g., a letter, a word, a meaning) are represented by a pattern of activation湖南师范大学 教育科学学院 心理学系Processing assumption: activation across different levels of representation (e.g., orthographic, phonological, & semantic) is cascaded, and engaged in interactive activationall that means is that there is two way communication between levels that is continually updating.rather than there being discrete, linear stages in which processing doesnt start in stage 2 until processing has finished