2013年恩度相关文献1cancer

1、What Is Cancer? What Causes Cancer?Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. There are over100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cellaffected.t is initiallyCancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps orm

2、asses of tie called tumors (excepthe case of leukemia where cancrohibitsnormal blood function by abnormal cell divihe blood stream). Tumors can growanderfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems, and they can releasehormonest alter body function. Tumorst stay in one spot and demonstr

3、aimitedgrowre generally considered to be benign.More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:1. a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymphsystems, destroying healthy tie in a pros called inva2.t cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood v

4、es to feed itself in apros called angiogenesis.When a tumor sucsfully spreads to otharts of the body and grows, invading anddestroying other healthy ties, it is said to have metastasized. This pros itself iscalled metastasis, and the result is a serious conditiont is very difficult to treat.How canc

5、er spreads - scientists reported in Nature Communications (October 2012ie)t they have discovered an important clue as to why cancer cells spread. Issomething to do with their adhe(stickiness) properties. Certaoleculareractionsbetn cells and the scaffoldingt holds them in place (extracellular matrix)

6、 causethem toe unstuck at the original tumor site, theye dislodged, move on andthen reattach themselves at a new site.The researchers say this discovery is important because cancer mortality is mainly due tometasic tumors, thoset grow from cellsve traveled from their original site toanothart of the

7、body. Only 10% of cancer deaths are caused by the primary tumors.The scientists, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, sayt finding a way tostop cancer cells from sticking thalt the growth of secondary tumors.sites coulderfere with metasic disease, andIn 2007, cancer claimed the lives of a

8、bout 7.6 million peoplehe world. Physins andresearchers who spelizehe study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancerare called oncologists.What causes cancer?Cancer is ultimay the result of cellst uncontrollably grow and do not die. Normalcellshe body follow an orderly path of growth, divi, a

9、nd death. Programmed celldeath is called apoptosis, and when this pros breaks down, cancer begins to form.Unlike regular cells, cancer cells do not experience programmatic deand insteadcontinue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cellscontrol.t grows out ofWhat is cancer? -A short,

10、3D, animatedSystems and usedroduction to cancer. This was originally created by BioDigitalhe Stand Up 2 Cancerethon.Genes - the DNA typeCells can experience uncontrolled growth if there are damages or muions to DNA, andtherefore, damage to tresponsible for the cell divies involved in cell divi. Four

11、 key types of gene arel cells when to divide, tumorpros: oncogenessuppressenesl cells when not to divide, suicide genes control apoptosis andl thecell to kill itself if something goes wrong, and DNA-repair genes instruct a cell to repairdamaged DNA.Cancer occurs when a cells gene muions make the cel

12、able to correct DNA damageand unable to commit suicide. Similarly, cancer is a result of muionst inhibitoncogene and tumor suppressene function, leading to uncontrollable cell growth.CarcinogensCarcinogens are a class of substant are directly responsible for damaging DNA,promoting or aiding cancer.

13、Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic, radiation such as gamma andx-rays, the sun, and compounds in car exhaust fumes are all examples of carcinogens.When our bodies are exed to carcinogens, free radicals are formedt try to stealelectrons from other moleculestheir ability to function normally.he body. Theses f

14、ree radicals damage cells and affectGenes - the family typeCancer can be the result of a genetic predisitiont is inherited from family members.It issible to be born with certain genetic muions or a fault in a genet makes onesistically more likely to develop cancer later in life.Other medical factors

15、As we age, there is an increasehe number ofsible cancer-causing muions in ourDNA. This makes age an important risk factor for cancer. Severales have also beenlinked to cancer such as: human papilloma(a cause of cervical cancer), hepatitis Band C (causes of liver cancer), and Epstein-Barr(a cause of

16、some childhoodcancers). Human immunodeficiency(HIV) - and anything elset suppresses orweakens the immune system - inhibits the bodys ability to fight infections and increasesthe chance of develocancer.What are the symptoms of cancer?Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is

17、located, where ithas spread, and how big the tumor is. Some cancers can be felt or seen through the skin -a lump on the breast or testicle can be an indicator of cancerhose locations. Skincancer (melanoma) is often noted by a change in a wart or mole on the skin. Some oralcancers present white patch

18、es inside the mouth or white spots on the tongue.Other cancers have symptomst are less physically apparent. Some braumors tendto present symptoms earlyhe disease as they affect important cognitive functions.Pancreas cancers are usually too small to cause symptoms until they cause pain bypushing agai

19、nst nearby nerves orerfere with liver function to cause a yellowing of theskin and eyes called jaundice. Symptoms also can be created as a tumrows andpushes againstans and blood ves. For example, colon cancers lead to symptomssuch as constipation, diarrhea, and changes in stool size. Bladder or pros

20、e cancerscause changes in bladder function such as more frequent or infrequent urination.As cancer cells use the bodys energy anderfere with normal hormone function, it issible to present symptomch as fever, fatigue, exsive sweating, anemia, andunexplained weight loss. However, these symptoms are co

21、mmon in several othermaladies as well. For example, coughing and hoarseness can pocancer as well as several other conditions.tog or throatWhen cancer spreads, or metastasizes, additional symptoms can present themselves inthe newly affected area. Swollen or enlarged lymph nodes are common and likely

22、to be present early. If cancer spreads to the brain, patients may experience vertigo, headaches,or seizures. Spreading to theaddition, the liver maygs may cause coughing and shortness of breath. Ine enlarged and cause jaundice and bones canepainful, brittle, and break easily. Symptoms of metastasis

23、ultimay depend on thelocation to which the cancer has spread.How is cancer classified?There are five broad groupst are used to classify cancer.1.Carcinomas are characterized by cellst coverernal and external parts of thebody such asg, breast, and colon cancer.2.as are characterized by cellst are loc

24、ated in bone, cartilage, fat,connective tie, muscle, and other supportive ties.3.4.Lymphomas are cancers Leukemias are cancers bloodstream.Adenomas are cancerst begint beginhe lymph nodes and immune system ties.he bone marrow and often accumulatehe5.t arisehe thyroid, thtuitary gland, the adrenal gl

25、and,and other glandular ties.Cancers are often referred to by termsthe cancer originated and a suffix such as prefixes include:t contain a prefix related to the cell type in whicha, -carcinoma, or just -oma. CommonAdeno- = gland Chondro- = cartilage Erythro- = red blood cell Hemangio- = blood ve Hep

26、ato- = liverLipo- = fatsLympho- = white blood cell Melano- = pigment cell Myelo- = bone marrow Myo- = muscleOsteo- = bone Uro- = bladder Retino- = eyeNeuro- = brainHow is cancer diagnosed and staged?Early detection of cancer can grey improve the odds of sucsful treatment andsurvival. Physins use inf

27、ormation from symptoms and several othrocedures todiagnose cancer. Imaging techniquech as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, PET scans,and ultrasound scans are used regularly in order to detect where a tumor is located andwhatans may be affected by it. Doctors may also conduct an endoscopy, which is aproc

28、eduret uses a thube wicamera and lighone end, to look forabnormalities inside the body.Extracting cancer cells and looking at them under a microscope is the only absolute wayto diagnose cancer. This procedure is called a biopsy. Other types of molecular diagnostictests are frequently employed as wel

29、l. Physins willyze your bodygars, fats,proteins, and DNA at the molecular level. For example, cancerous prose cells release ahigher level of a chemical called PSA (prose-specific antigen)o the bloodstreamtcan be detected by a blood test. Molecular diagnostics, biopsies, and imaging techniquesare all

30、 used together to diagnose cancer.After a diagnosis is made, doctors find out how far the cancer has spread and determinethe stage of the cancer. The stage determines which choiwill be available fortreatment and informs prognoses. The most common cancer staging method is called the TNM system. T (1-

31、4) indicates the size and direct extent of the primary tumor, N (0-3)indicates the degree to which the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes, and M (0-1)indicates whether the cancer has metastasized to otheranshe body. A small tumors not spread to lymph nodes or distantexample.ans may be staged as

32、 (T1, N0, M0), forTNM descriptions then lead to a simpler categorization of stages, from 0 to 4, where lowernumbers indicatet the cancer has spread less. While most Stage 1 tumors are curable,most Stage 4 tumors are inoperable or untreatable.How is cancer treated?Cancer treatment depends on the type

33、 of cancer, the stage of the cancer (how much ithas spread), age, health sus, and additionalal characteristics. There is no singletreatment for cancer, and patients often receive a combination of therapies and palliativecare. Treatments usually fallo one of the following categories: surgery, radiati

34、on,chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hormone therapy,ene therapy.SurgerySurgery is the oldest known treatment for cancer. If a cancer has not metastasized, it issible to compley cure a patient by surgically removing the cancer from the body.This is often seenhe removal of the prose or a breast or testicl

35、e. After the diseasehas spread, however, it is nearly imsible to remove all of the cancer cells. Surgery mayalso be instrumental in helto control symptomch as bowel obstruction or spinalcord compres.RadiationRadiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys cancer by focusinghigh-energy rays

36、 on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the moleculest make upthe cancer cells and leads them to commit suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energygamma-rayscreated in a spet are emitted from metalch as radium or high-energy x-rayst arel machine. Early radiation treatments caused severe side-effe

37、ctsbecause the energy beams would damage normal, healthy tie, but technologies haveimproved sot beams can be more accurayed. Radiotherapy is used as astandalone treatment to shrink a tumor or destroy cancer cells (including those assowith leukemia and lymphoma), and it is also used in combination wi

38、th other cancer treatments.tedChemotherapyChemotherapy utilizes chemicalsterfere with the cell divipros - damagingproteins or DNA - sot cancer cells will commit suicide. These treatmentsanyraly dividing cells (not nesarily just cancer cells), but normal cells usually canrecover from any chemical-ind

39、uced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy isgenerally used to treat cancers spread or metastasized because the medicinestravel throughout the entire body. It is a nesary treatment for some forms of leukemiaand lymphoma. Chemotherapy treatment occurs in cycles so the body has time to healbe

40、tn doses. However, there are still common side effectch as hair loss, nausea,fatigue, and vomiting. Combination therapies often include multiple types ofchemotherapy or chemotherapy combined with other treatment options.ImmunotherapyImmunotherapy aims to get the bodys immune system to fight the tumo

41、r. Localimmunotherapy injects a treatmento an affected area, for example, to causeinflammationt causes a tumor to shrink. Systemic immunotherapy treats the wholebody by administering an agent such as the proteinerferon alphat can shrinktumors. Immunotherapy cso be considered non-specific if it impro

42、ves cancer-fightingabilities by stimulating the entire immune system, and it can be considereded if thetreatment specificallyls the immune system to destroy cancer cells. These therapiesare relatively young, but researchers have had sucs with treatmentstroduceantibodies to the bodyt inhibit the grow

43、th of breast cancer cells. Bone marrowtransplanion (hematopoetic stem cell transplanion) cso be consideredimmunotherapy because the donors immune cells will often attack the tumor or cancercellst are presenthe host.Hormone therapySeveral cancers have been linked to some types of hormones, most notab

44、ly breast andprose cancer. Hormone therapy is designed to alter hormone productionhe body sot cancer cells stop growing or are killed compley. Breast cancer hormone therapies often focus on reducing estrogen levels (a common drug for this is tamoxifen) andprose cancer hormone therapies often focus o

45、n reducing testosterone levels. Inaddition, some leukemia and lymphoma cases can be treated with the hormone cortisone.Gene therapyThe goal of gene therapy is to replace damaged genes with onest work to address aroot cause of cancer: damage to DNA. For example, researchers are trying to replace thed

46、amaged genet signals cells to stop dividing (the p53 gene) wicopy of a workinggene. Other gene-based therapies focus on further damaging cancer cell DNA to the powhere the cell commitresulted in any sucicide. Gene therapy is a very young field and has not yetsful treatments.Using cancer-specific imm

47、une system cells to treat cancerScientists from the RIKEN Research Centre for Allergy and Immunology in Yokohama,Japan, explainedhe journal Cell Stem Cell (January 2013 ie) how they managed tomake cancer-specific immune system cells from iPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) todestroy cancer cells.

48、The authors addedt their study has shownt it issible to clone vers of thepatients own cells to enhance their immune system sodestroyed naturally.t cancer cells could beHiroshi Kawamoto and team created cancer-specific killer T-lymphocytes from iPSCs.They started off with mature T-lymphocytes which w

49、ere specific for a type of skin cancerand reprogrammed themo iPSCs with the help of “Yamanaka factors”. The iPSCseventually turnedo fully active, cancer-specific T-lymphocytes - in other words, cellstand destroy cancer cells.How can cancer be prevented?Cancerst are closely linked to certain behavior

50、s are the easiest to prevent. Forexample, choosing not to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol significantly lower the risk ofseveral types of cancer - most notablyg, throat, mouth, and liver cancer. Even if youare a current tobacco user, quitting can still grey reduce your chanof getting cancer.Skin canc

51、er can be prevented by stayinghe shade, protecting yourself wihat andshirt whenhe sun, and using sunscreen. Diet is also an important part of cancerprevention since whatas been linked to the disease. Physinsmenddietst are low in fat and rich in fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains.Certain va

52、ccinations have been assoted with the prevention of some cancers. Forexample, many women receive a vaccination for the human papillomabecause of thes relationship with cervical cancer. Hepatitis B vaccines prevent the hepatitis Bwhich can cause liver cancer.,Some cancrevention is based on systematic

53、 screening in order to detect smallirregularities or tumors as early assible even if there are no clear symptoms present.Breast self-examination, mammograms, testicular self-examination, and Pap smears arecommon screening methods for various cancers.ing cancers for new drug therapiesResearchers at T

54、he Institute of Cancer Research reportedhe journal Nature ReviewsDrug Discovery (January 2013 iprioritizing the best druggablee)t they have found a new way of ralys online. They managed to identify 46 previouslyoverlookeds.The researchers used the canSAR database together witool and were able tocomp

55、are up to 500 drugyze huge volumes of das in a matter of minutes. With this method, it issible too discover new drugs, which can lead to thedevelopment of effective cancer medications.The scientistsyzed 479 cancer genes to determine which ones were potentialsfor medications. Their approach was effec

56、tive - they found 46 new potentially “druggable”cancroteins.Not only will this approach lead to muoreed cancer drugs, but alsoconsiderably cher ones, the authors added.How to eat to prevent cancer -A guide to some everyday foodst contain nutrientst may help reduce your risk ofgetting cancer.by Howca

57、st.译者语：从医学时讯上看到一篇关于肿瘤的科普性文章，现翻译供/sections/cancer-oncology/参阅。该文简要地概述了肿瘤的发生、发展、与治疗的基本信息和现状。相信同事们在阅读之后，将有助于理解肿瘤临床的相关信息。医学市场部-2013 年 2 月 17 日肿瘤？的有哪些？肿瘤是一种以细胞失控性生长为特征的疾病。现有 100 多种不同类型的肿瘤，一般根据起源的细胞进行分类。肿瘤细胞无限增殖形成结节或肿块时对造成（除白血病，它是异常细胞增殖，结果导致抑制正常血细胞功能）。肿瘤生长并干扰消化、神经和循环系统等功能，它们认为是良性的。的激素能导致机体功能异常。肿瘤局限于某处，呈有限

58、性的生长通常被在两种情况下，肿瘤通常被认为是或恶性的：1、肿瘤细胞在浸润过程中损伤正常组织，或通过血液和淋巴系统向全身扩散。2、细胞增殖过程中形成新生供养其自己。肿瘤扩散至身体其它部位，且生长、浸润、破坏其它正常的组织，这过程称之为肿瘤转移。发生这种严重状况后，肿瘤很少有被治愈可能。肿瘤是如何进行播撒的科学家在Nature Communications (October 2012 ie)：他们已经发现重要的因子，可以解释肿瘤播撒的原因。这种因子与某些粘附因子特性相关联。在肿瘤的原始部位，肿瘤细胞间某些分子间的相互作用导致肿瘤细胞脱离原始部位，向外迁延，并重新积聚到一个新的地方。者认为这种发现是

59、重要的。因为肿瘤致死的主要原因归咎于转移。只有 10%的肿瘤是肿瘤灶所致。来自Massachusetts Institute of Technology 的科学家认为寻找癌细胞种植于新“居所”的方法可能有助于对转移性癌肿进行干预，继发性肿瘤的生长。2007 年，夺称去了全世界 760 万人的性命。致力于肿瘤之为肿瘤病学家。，、治疗和预防的医生和者，肿瘤的致病？肿瘤是细胞无控制性生长的结果。体内正常细胞通常遵循生长、分化和的有序规律。细胞程序化又称之为凋亡。当这种过程被阻断了，肿瘤就开始形成了。不像正常的细胞，癌细胞不经历凋亡过程，相反它会无限增殖和。失控生长的异常细胞就形成肿块。-DNA 类型

60、DNA 损伤或发生突变，损伤到参与细胞调控的，细胞就可能发生失控性生长。四种关键的细胞何时停止参与细胞；的调控过程：癌“告知”细胞何时；抑癌“告知”控制凋亡和“告知”细胞自毁，如果细胞出现异常时；DNA 修。复指导细胞修复损伤当细胞突变导致细胞不能修复损伤的 DNA 和不能“自毁”时，就发生了。是突变的结果，这种突变抑制了癌和肿瘤抑制的功能，导致细胞失控性生长。物物是一大类物质，它们能损伤 DNA，诱发细胞。烟草、砷、r 和 x 射线、日光、汽车尾气等都是物。当机体于物时，体内基形成。这些基可损伤细胞和影响细胞功能的正常发挥。-类型具有遗传倾向。可能天生就有某种瘤性疾病。的突变或异常，使在其后