第一章语言学导论

1、第一章-语言学导论第一章语言学导论Chapterl Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide usewith comb in ati onwelldiscipli nes.Lin guistics applicati on.of theories andasgreatlin guisticspractice asand otheris of人工智能，use with人机对话，very wide机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond

2、Ianguage itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you defi ne lin guistics? What is lin guistics?Lin guistics can be defi ned as the scie ntific or systematic study of Ian guage. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human Ian guage.What are w

3、e going to lear n about lin guistics?1. It is gen erally agreed that lin guistics should in clude at least five parameters, n amely, pho no logical, morphological, syn tactic, sema ntic and pragmatic. These can be called microli nguistics.语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学 (morphology); 句法学(syntax) S

4、chools of Modern Linguistics现代语言学流派；语义学 (semantics); 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6)2. Macroli nguisticsin terdiscipli narylearningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语 言学之父)were intended to establish the aut onomy of lin guistics, giv ing it a well-defi ned subject of study and freeing it from re

5、liance on other discipli nes. However, the in teractive links between linguistics and other sciences are develop ing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖 中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和 其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholi nguisticsPsycholi nguistics, as implied by the n ame, is the study of psychological aspects

6、of Ianguage. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of Ian guage.心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面 的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的心理 状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解， 语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11)Socioli nguisticsSociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relati on sh

7、ip betwee n Ian guage and society.Sociolinguistics attempts to look at Ianguage structures by pay ing atte nti on to Ian guage use in a social con text and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking comm un ity.这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面

8、通过社会语 境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问题， 另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成 的问题。Research Focus1Cross-cultural Comm uni cati onThere exists a close relati on shipbetwee nIan guage and culture.Lan guageis anindispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better represe ntati on through Ian guage use.语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性； 文化通过语

9、言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展 示。心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961),真正的交流建 立在理解基础上的倾听。An thropological Lin guistics 人类语言学An thropologicallin guistsarein terestedprimarily in the history and structure of formerly un writte n Ian guages. They are concerned with the emerge nee of Ian guage and also with the diverge nee of Ian guag

10、es over thousands of years. They start with the comparis on of con temporary Ian guages in order to draw inferen ces about the kinds of cha nge in Ianguage that may have occurred in the past. This is the“ diachr onic” study of Ian guage.人类语言学家主要对历史和早期无文字语言的结构感兴趣，他们关注语言的出现和上千年来语 言的分化。他们从当代语言的比较出发，推测语

11、 言过去发生了何种变化。这就是对语言历时的研 究，即研究语言的历史。Computational Lin guistics计算机语言学Some curre nt applicati on areas in elude Machi ne Tran slati on,CorpusLin guisticsandInformation Retrieval as well as various forms of computer mediated（传递的）comm uni cati on such as emails, QQ, on li ne shopp ing tran sacti on softwa

12、re and so on.当前的一些应用领域包括机器翻译，语料库语 言学和信息检索，各种各样因电脑的出现而改变 的交际方式，比如电子邮件，QQ聊天，网上购 物交易软件等等。In sta nt Messe nger on the in ter net （基于互联 网的即时通讯）,such as百度Hi, MSN, UC, YY 语音，阿里旺旺等等。Other interdisciplinary branches1、认知语言学 Cognitive Linguistics （chapter 10）2、语言与语言教学（chapter 12 AppliedLin guistics）3、文本语言学或语篇分

13、析一 Discourse An alysis Chapter 7 （研究语言和语境的关系the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and the con texts in which Ianguage is used, 语篇的衔接 cohesion 连贯 cohere nee 等等）。4、语言与文学 Lan guage and Literature （文体 学 Stylistics）5、神经语言学 n euroli nguistics What is Ian guage?对语言的误解： wrong ideas about Ian guage1、语言仅是一种交际

14、方式Lan guage is only a means of comm uni cati on.2、语言的形式和意义对应一致Lan guagehas a form-mea ningcorresp onden ce.3、语言的作用即交换信息The function of Ianguage is to exchange in formatio n.4、英语比汉语难学EngIish is more difficuIt to Iearn thanChi nese.5、黑人英语不标准需要改造Black En glish is not sta ndard and should be reformed.误解

15、语言仅仅是一个交际系统Language isonly a system of comm uni cati on.If Ianguage is merely defined as a system of comm uni cati on, we can call the no ises that dogs make Ian guage. As we know, birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures comm uni cate in some way, but the information imparted is severe

16、ly limited and confined to a small set of messages.So Ianguage can be defined merely as a system of comm uni cati on,otherwiseIan guage is not unique to huma ns. Lan guage is one of the unique possessi ons of huma n bein gs. It is used for huma n comm uni cati on. It is one of our most articulated m

17、eans of expressing ideas and thoughts. The design features of Ianguage disti nguish us from ani mals.误解1语言仅是一种交际方式Language isonly a means of comm uni cati on.误解2语言的形式和意义对应一致Language has a form-mea ning corresp ondence“土豆”，形式上是“土”和“豆”这两个字的 组合，但意义上不是说一把土和一堆豆就是土豆 了，而表达的是另外的意思，指的是一种蔬菜， 我们把它叫做土豆。误解3语言的作用

18、即交换信息The function ofIan guage is to excha nge in formati onA man may say ouch! after striking a fin ger nail with a hammer, or he may mutter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. Such exclamations are usually uttered without any purpose of comm uni cat ing to others but as esse n

19、tially a verbal resp onse to a person s own feelings.这些感叹词通常不具有跟他人交际的目的， 只是一个自我感受的言语反应。误解4英语比汉语难学 English is more difficult to learn than Chinese英语和汉语是两种不同的语言，具有不同的结构 体系，英语是拼音文字，汉语是象形文字，因此 英语重形合，汉语重意合，汉语中词与词，句子 与句子的组合只要实现意义上的连贯就可以了， 但英语要想实现意义上的连贯，必须在形式上实 现连贯，从而达到一个意义与形式珠联璧合的整 体。例：我从乡下跑到京城里，一转眼已经六 年了

20、。Six years have passed since I came from the country to the capital.英语所说的形合就在于si nee这个连接词，汉 语不用连词也能将意义表达出来，但英语必须有 连词才能实现形式和意义的连贯。文化差异：高低语境中国人说话的语境高还是低？美国人是典型的低语境，美国人做事情一 定要把事情给你讲得特别详细。汉语：象形文字e.g.交流英语：拼读文字 e.g. communication不同的语言在历史的变迁中都形成了不同 的语言体系误解5黑人英语不标准需要改造Black Englishis not sta ndard and shoul

21、d be reformed 语言没有优劣，只有不同有人说汉语是欠发达的语言，因为它缺乏屈 折变化（也就是英语中的词缀，像单三，单复数， 所属格，进行体“-ing，完成体“-ed”，What do you think?洪堡特（洪堡特是18,19世纪著名的语言学 家，专心致力于语言的研究，其影响力最大的著 作是论人类语言结构的差异及其对人类精神发 展的影响，简称论语言语言学家们对语言的定义A gen erally accepted defi niti on is: Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n co

22、mm uni cati on.system,语言是一个体系。 Eleme nts in it are not arran gedand comb inedran domly,butaccordi ng to some rules and prin ciples.arbitrary:任意性关于语言任意性的问题我在 语言的本质特征上再详细讲解。Language is vocal-the primary medium for all Ian guages is sou nd.所有语言的最基本媒介都是 声音，书面文字系统的形成要大大晚于口头形 式。所以我们对语言定义的时候把它说成是vocal symb

23、olsLan guage is used for huma n comm uni cati on. It is huma n-specific, very differe nt from systems of ani mal comm uni cati on.Origi n of Lan guageNo sin gle theory about the origi n of Ian guage is accepted by everybody. But one point we must be aware of is that man s stepping into social life,

24、leaving behind his primitive life is one of the major factors of the creation of Ianguage. The evolution of man s social life paved the way for the evoluti on of Ian guage. So society is both the creator and the container of Ian guage.语言是在社会文化中形成和习得的。Lan guage is culturally not gen etically tran smi

25、tted.Desig n features of Ian guageThese features, now called desig n features, are found utterly lack ing in an imal comm uni cati on and thus set huma n Ian guage apart from animal cry systems. arbitrariness， 任意性This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a part

26、icular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, there is no reas on why En glish should use the soun ds/dog/to refer to the ani mal dog, or why Chinese should use “ gou ”o refer to the same ani mal.语言的任意性是现代语言学之父索绪尔提出来 的。他认为，一个语言单位或一个语言符号是概 念和声音的结合，不是把物和名称结合起来（P9 上面第二句说的任意性指的是物和名称，而

27、索绪 尔指的是概念和声音。对语言任意性最大的挑战在于语言的象似性，比 女口一些拟声词（onomatopoetic words, words that imitate natural sounds）， bang （敲门声）。Duality 二重性Sounds such as d, g, f, o mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog and god. This orga ni zati on of Ian

28、guage into two levels-a level of sounds which comb ine into a second level of larger units is called duality.话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音， 语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单 位，比如词。本身不传达意义的语音的唯一作用就是相互 组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。成 千上万的词来自于一套语音系统，在英语中是 48个音标。大量的词产生无穷的句子，句子又 形成无穷的语篇。prcductivity/creativity生成性 /创造性Because

29、 of its duality, language is productive or creative.语言的创造性来源于语言的二层 性。根据语言的二层性，语音相互组合构成成千 上万的词，词语又是不断更新变化的，不断产生 新词新意，词又无止境地生成句子，句子再形成 语篇。以前没有过的或没有听过的新词新句能立 刻被人们所理解。因此我们说语言并不仅仅是一 个交际体系，动物之间也有进行交流的“语言” 体系，那语言之所以为人类所独有就在于它的创 造性，动物只能传递有限的信息，而人类的语言 却在时刻创造无穷的词语，句子。语言的创造性另一方面来源于语言的递归性， 即语言有制造无穷长句的潜力。He boug

30、ht a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who我们可以将这个句子无限地扩展下去。In tercha ngeability 木相互，性In tercha ngeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages,（信息的 输出者和接受者 ）and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchange

31、d at ease. 在动物界去卩 不然，像蜜蜂和长臂猿（gibbons） They areen dowed with the ability to produce and receive message. This comm uni cative ability is found lacking in other animals. Some male birds, for example, possess calls which females do not have So this feature distinguishes human Ianguage from ani mals com

32、m uni cati on.Displacement 移位性Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situati on, but huma n beings can com muni cate about things that are absent as easily as about

33、 things that are prese nt.我们在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间 上并不可及的物体，时间或观点。我们可以提及 孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多 年而后者位置距我们非常之远。但动物不行，大多数动物都处在“外界或内部直接刺激控制之 下(immediate exter nal or in ter nal stimulus control)。我们人是不受刺激控制的。一只狗不 能告诉人们若干天后主人在家，而我们能够谈及 已不存在或还未出现的事物。蜜蜂的舞蹈展示出 少许的移位性，它能指示食物源，在它回来报告 时，食物源在时间和空间上是过去的和遥远的。移位性赋予人们概括和

34、抽象能力。我们还 具备理解“非实体”概念的能力，如真理和美。SpecializationSpecialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical in volveme nt in the act of comm uni cati on. We can talk about an exciting experienee while engaged in activities completely detached from（分离）the subject un der discussi on. For exa

35、mple, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.Animals can only respond to a stimulus and they are totally involved physically in the comm uni cati on process.Cultural Tran smissi onLan guage is culturally tran smitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity（ 遗传）. A human be

36、ing brought up in isolation simply does not acquire Ian guage as is dem on strated by the studies of children brought up by animals without huma n con tact. Ani mals tran smit their cries through heredity, that is, simple from pare nt to child.一个人若不处在特定的社会文化背景下，是 不可能习得人类语言的Fun cti ons of Ian guageLa

37、n guage is a tool of comm uni cati on. The term“ comm uni cati on ” can be used to cover much of the function of Ianguage. Linguists have used different terms for different specific functions. Here are some of the major categories.Phatic （交际性的）function/communion:寒暄功能 /寒暄交谈，It refers to the social in

38、teraction of Ian guage.指言语的交互性Lan guage is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social con tact betwee n the speaker and the hearer. Greeti ngs, farewells and comme nts on the weather serve this fun cti on.Mr. P sn eezes viole ntlyMr. Q: Bless youMr. P: Tha nk youExpressions such as “ Howdo y

39、ou do? ” “ How are you doing? ” arf phatic function. They don tconvey any meaning, but are used to establish a comm on sen time nt betwee n the speaker and the hearer.We alluse suchsmall, seem in glymeanin glessexpressi onsto mai nta in acomfortablerelati on shipbetwee npeoplewithout involving any f

40、actual content. 我们者E 会用这种短小看似无意义的表述来维持人们之 间和谐的关系，并不涉及任何实质内容。Directive fun cti on:指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do somethi ng. Most imperative senten ces are of this fun cti on.Informative function， 信息功能Lan guage is used to tell somethi ng, to give information, or to reason things out. （分

41、析问题） Declarative senten ces serve this fun cti on.For most people the in formative fun cti on is predom inan tly the major role of Ian guage.People often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud, for in sta nee, whe n they are worki ng on amath problem.The use of Ianguage to record the facts is a pre

42、requisite of social developme nt.能够用语言记录事实是社会发展的前提。The symbol “ Road Closed ” on a road Language serves for the expression of content. Halliday语言为表达“内容”服务。Language of phatic function is used to establish or main tai n social con tact without involving any factual content.Interrogative function疑问功能As

43、k for in formati on from othersAll questions expecting replies serve this fun cti on.Rhetorical questi ons do not have the interrogative function, such as Shelly amous line “If Win ter comes, can Spri ng be far behind? ”Expressive function 表达功能Language is used to reveal the speaker sattitudes and fe

44、elings, such as “ My God ”“ Good Heave ns” , “ What a sight ” , “ Wow ” The expressive function can often be entirely“ouch! ”afterpersonal and totally without any implication of comm uni cati on to others.表达功能能够完全个 人化而不掺入任何与他人的交际。For example, a man may saystrik ing a fin ger nail with a hammer, or h

45、e may say “ My God! ” when realizing that he has slept over. Such exclamations are usually uttered without any purpose of comm uni cat ing to others but as esse ntially a verbal resp onse to a pers on own feeli ngs.你被什么东西砸了一下然后大叫“哎呦！”意识到睡过了会大叫天哪！这些表达个人情感的 感叹词通常不具有跟他人交际的目的，但对于自我感受来说，却是很重要的言语反应。Evocat

46、ive（唤起，弓 |起 ）functionLan guage is used to create certa in feeli ngs in the hearers. Such as to amuse, to an ger, to worry or to please the hearer.Jokes, advertising and propaganda serve this fun cti on.Utterances of encouragement, inspiration and con solati on are of this fun cti on.According to som

47、e investigation, though the con vey ing of in formatio n occurs in most uses of Ianguage, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal comm uni cati on.The emotive fun cti on ofIanguage is one of the most powerful uses of Ianguage because it is crucial in changing th

48、e emotional status of an audience for or against some one or somethi ng.根据调查，虽然信息的传递发生在大多数 语言使用中，但它们最多占全部语言交际的 20%。语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之 一,因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人，某物的态度上作用非常关键。Performative fun cti on施为功能At a meeting, when the chairman says: “I declare the meeting open ” ,the meeting has started.I apologize.I n

49、ame this ship the Quee n Elizabeth.I bet you sixpenee it will rain tomorrow.I war n you that the bull will charge.施为句，其中的动词叫施为性动词Lan guage is used to do things or to perform acts.这是牛津哲学家奥斯汀提出的理论。Metali ngual Fun cti on 元语言功能What is metaf un cti on of Ian guage or metali ngual fun cti on?Our Ianguage

50、 can be used to talk about itself.我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。This makesthe Ianguage infinitely self-reflexive.We can use the word “ book ”o talk about a book, and we can also use the expressi on “ the word book ” to talk about the sign“ book ” itseThe lion chased the unicorn all around thetown.All round the to

51、w n the lion chased the uni cor n.The change of sentence order changes ourperspective about the concerns of the clause.“ what did the lion do? ”“ where or in what scope did the lion chase the uni cor n? ”This is the metali ngual fun cti on of Ian guage.We huma n beings can talk about talk. 人类可 以谈论说话

52、”。A: Let s get the kids something.B: Okey, but I veto l-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.This is a conversation which violates the forth maxim of the cooperative principle, that is to avoid obscurity of expressi on.Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描写式vs.规定式Do/Don t say X.（主观规定）a prescri

53、ptive comma nd（规定式指令）People do/don t say X.（客观描述）a descriptive stateme nt（描述性陈述）Traditional grammar which is based on thegrammars of Lat in contains stateme nts like“ dnot split infinitives , “Yoishould never use a double- negative ” or “ do not end sentences withickly goa preposition ”or example, i

54、n traditional grammar, it is in correct to say“ to qu“ a person who I play with” .As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. What is “ prescriptive ” ?什么是规定式？The early Ian guages were studied prescriptively. The grammaria ns tried to lay down rules for the c

55、orrect use of Ianguage before people s actual use of it.Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Moder n lin guists try to discover and record the living Ianguages used by people in real life and do not seek to impose upon them the rules and norms before their actual use of Ian guage.语言学家并不是在人们使用语言之前就

56、强加 给他们规则和使用语言的标准，而是试图发现和 记录人们使用的活生生的语言语言是被人们使用的，而不应该在人们使用 语言之前就制定各种规则。例：阳光给了万物温暖。你很阳光语言的规范“ There are obvious administrative and education advantages, in the modern world, in sta ndardiz ing the prin cipal dialect that is employed with in a particular country or力regi on.在现代社会，规范一个特定国家和地区的主要 方言带来管理上和

57、教育上明显的便利。普通话是对各种方言的规范。简体字 量词用语规范一个人，一头牛What is the differenee between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to Ian guage?A prescriptive approach to Ian guage aims to lay down rules for the correct use of Ianguage and tell people what should be in the Ian guage.To say that lin guistics is a descriptive scie nee is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of aIan guage comm un ity actually conform in stead of impos ing upon them rules of correct ness. Synchronic and diachr onic lin guistics“ A Grammar of moder n Greek”现代希腊语语法T