(关税的成本和收益)

1、12 Last time we have learned the roles of tariffs, how to value the protection of tariffs?3 一、一、Costs and Benefits of a Tariff( (关税的成本和收益关税的成本和收益) ) The result of imposing a tariff A tariff raises the price of a good in the importing country and lowers it in the exporting country.4 As a result of th

2、ese price changes: Consumers lose in the importing country and gain in the exporting country Producers gain in the importing country and lose in the exporting country Government imposing the tariff gains revenue5 To measure and compare these costs and benefits, we need to define consumer and produce

3、r surplus first.6 Consumer surplus and Producer surplus Consumer surplus（消费者剩余）（消费者剩余） It measures the amount a consumer gains from a purchase by the difference between the price he actually pays and the price he would have been willing to pay.7 It can be derived from the market demand curve. Graphi

4、cally, it is equal to the area under the demand curve and above the price. Example: Suppose a person is willing to pay $20 per packet of pills, but the price is only $5. Then, the consumer surplus gained by the purchase of a packet of pills is $15.88$129$1010$911DFigure 8-6: Deriving Consumer Surplu

5、sfrom the Demand CurvePrice, PQuantity, Q9Figure 8-7: Geometry of Consumer SurplusabP1P2DPrice, PQuantity, QQ2Q110 Producer surplus （生产者剩余）（生产者剩余） It measures the amount a producer gains from a sale by the difference between the price he actually receives and the price at which he would have been wi

6、lling to sell.11 It can be derived from the market supply curve. Graphically, it is equal to the area above the supply curve and below the price.Example: A producer willing to sell a good for $2 but receiving a price of $5 gains a producer surplus of $3.12Figure 8-8: Geometry of Producer SurplusdcP2

7、P1SPrice, PQuantity, QQ2Q113 Measuring the Cost and Benefits How to measure the cost and benefits We can add consumer and producer surplus because any change in price affects each individual in two ways(as a consumer and as a worker) showed by Figure 8-9. We assume that at the margin a dollars worth

8、 of gain or loss to each group is of the same social worth( it is not in reality).14Figure 8-9: Costs and Benefits of a Tariff for the Importing CountryPTPWP*TbcdeDa= consumer loss (a + b + c + d)= producer gain (a)= government revenue gain (c + e)QTD2S2SS1D1Price, PQuantity, Q15 The areas of the tw

9、o triangles b and d measure the loss to the nation as a whole (efficiency loss) and the area of the rectangle e measures an offsetting gain (terms of trade gain). The efficiency loss arises because a tariff distorts incentives to consume and produce. 16 Producers and consumers act as if imports were

10、 more expensive than they actually are. Triangle b is the production distortion loss（生（生产扭曲损失）产扭曲损失） and triangle d is the consumption distortion loss（消费扭曲损失）（消费扭曲损失）. The terms of trade gain(e) arises because a tariff lowers foreign export prices.17 The net welfare effects of tariff If the terms of

11、 trade gain(e) is greater than the efficiency loss(b+d), the tariff increases welfare for the importing country showed by Figure 8-10. In the case of a small country that cannot significantly affect foreign prices(no e), the costs of a tariff unambiguously exceed its benefits. 18Figure 8-10: Net Wel

12、fare Effects of a TariffPTPWP*TbdeD= efficiency loss (b + d)= terms of trade gain (e)ImportsSPrice, PQuantity, Q19 Case studyTariff and protection in Japanese agriculture20日本农业保护九成靠高关税日本农业保护九成靠高关税经济合作与发展组织（经济合作与发展组织（OECD）2005年发年发表了发达国家农业政策调查报告。报告称日本表了发达国家农业政策调查报告。报告称日本的农业保护主要依靠高关税，且高关税带来的的农业保护主要依靠高关

13、税，且高关税带来的负担基本全部转嫁给消费者。负担基本全部转嫁给消费者。 通过高关税保护农业在各国农业保护中的通过高关税保护农业在各国农业保护中的份额平均已由上世纪份额平均已由上世纪80年代末期的年代末期的78%降到了降到了2004年的年的60%，其中美国由，其中美国由39%降到了降到了35%，欧盟由欧盟由87%降到了降到了53%，而日本一直维持在，而日本一直维持在90%左右，几乎没有变化。左右，几乎没有变化。 21 日本可以说是世界上农产品关税最高的国日本可以说是世界上农产品关税最高的国家：小麦家：小麦210210，大米，大米490490，花生，花生500500，一，一种魔芋竟然高达种魔芋竟然

14、高达990990。然而具有讽刺意味的。然而具有讽刺意味的是，日本又是世界上最大的农产品进口国。按是，日本又是世界上最大的农产品进口国。按卡路里计算，一度高达卡路里计算，一度高达6666的食物依赖外国。的食物依赖外国。 到过日本的人不少都会对其农产品不可思到过日本的人不少都会对其农产品不可思议的高价格感到震惊，而中国人因为反差太大，议的高价格感到震惊，而中国人因为反差太大，更容易产生吃面条犹如吃金条的错觉。更容易产生吃面条犹如吃金条的错觉。22 二、二、Other Instruments of Trade Policy Tariffs we have learned are the simple

15、st trade policies, but in the modern world most government intervention in international trade takes other forms. We will consider export subsidy, import quota, voluntary export restraint ，local content requirement and Red-tape barriers today.23 Clips 技术壁垒技术壁垒-中国打火机：欧盟大门并未合上中国打火机：欧盟大门并未合上24 、Export

16、Subsidies: Theory What is the export subsidy? The export subsidy is a payment by the government to a firm or individual that ships a good abroad. The export subsidy can be either specific or ad valorem. 25 Effects of an Export Subsidy When the government offers an export subsidy, shippers will expor

17、t the good up to the point where the domestic price exceeds the foreign price by the amount of the subsidy showed by Figure 8-11. 26baFigure 8-11: Effects of an Export SubsidyPSPWP*SPrice, PQuantity, QExportsgfeSubsidydc= producer gain (a + b + c)= consumer loss (a + b)= cost of government subsidy (

18、b + c + d + e + f + g)DS27 An export subsidy raises prices in the exporting country(less than the subsidy) while lowering them in the importing country. An export subsidy unambiguously leads to costs(a + b + b + c + d + e + f + g) that exceed its benefits (a + b + c ). 28 The effects of an export su

19、bsidy on prices are exactly the reverse of those of tariff. In addition, and in contrast to a tariff, the export subsidy worsens the terms of trade.29 Case study: Europes Common Agricultural Program The Europes Common Agricultural Program began not as an export subsidy, but as an effort to guarantee

20、 high prices to European farmers by having the European Union buy agricultural products whenever the prices fell below specified support levels. 30 To prevent this policy from drawing in large quantities of surplus production and imports, the European Union imposes high tariffs and subsidizes the ex

21、ports to dispose of imports and surplus production. Figure 8-12 below shows how the CAP works.31Figure 8-12: Europes Common Agricultural ProgramPrice, PQuantity, QSDEU price without importsWorld price= cost of government subsidySupport priceExports32 The support price is set not only above the world

22、 price that would prevail in its absence but also above the price that would equate demand and supply even without imports. To export the resulting surplus, an export subsidy is paid that offsets the difference between European and would prices. 33、Import Quotas（进口配额）（进口配额）: Theory What is the impor

23、t quotas? An import quota is a direct restriction on the quantity of a good that is imported. The restriction is usually enforced by issuing licenses to some group of individuals or firms34 The quota rents （进口配额租金）（进口配额租金） License holders （许可证持有者）（许可证持有者） are able to buy imports and resell them at a

24、 higher price in the domestic market. The profits received by the holders of import licenses are known as quota rents. In some cases (e.g. sugar), the right to sell in the United States is given directly to the governments of exporting countries.35 Effects of an import quotas An import quota always

25、raises the domestic price of the imported good showed by Figure 8-13. Because at the initial price the demand for the good exceeds domestic supply plus imports (it is quotas).36Price in U.S. Market 466World Price 280bcdDemanda8.456.32Supply5.149.26Price, $/tonQuantity of sugar,million tonsFigure 8-1

26、3: Effects of the U.S. Import Quota on SugarImport quota:2.13 million tons= consumer loss (a + b + c + d)= producer gain (a)= quota rents (c)37 Welfare analysis of import quotas versus of that of tariffs The difference between a quota and a tariff is that with a quota the government receives no reve

27、nue. In assessing the costs and benefits of an import quota, it is crucial to determine who gets the rents.38 When the rights to sell in the domestic market are assigned to governments of exporting countries, the transfer of rents abroad makes the costs of a quota substantially higher than the equiv

28、alent tariff.39、Voluntary Export Restraints（自动出口限制）（自动出口限制） What is voluntary export restraint A voluntary export restraint (VER) is an export quota administered by the exporting country. It is also known as a voluntary restraint agreement (VRA), or orderly marketing agreements(OMAs.)40 VERs are imp

29、osed at the request of the importer and are agreed to by the exporter to forestall other trade restrictions.41 Effects of voluntary export restraint A VER is always more costly to the importing country than a tariff that limits imports by the same amount. The tariff equivalent revenue becomes rents

30、earned by foreigners under the VER. A VER produces a loss for the importing country(The tariff equivalent revenue ).42 A voluntary export restraint in Japan In 1979 sharp oil price increases and temporary gasoline shortages caused the U.S. market shift abruptly toward smaller cars. Japanese producer

31、s moved in to fill the new market. As the Japanese market share soared and U.S. output fell, strong political forces in the United States demanded protection for the U.S. industry.43 The Japanese, fearing unilateral U.S. protectionist measures, agreed to limit their sales. The first agreement, in 19

32、81, limited Japanese exports to the United States to 1.68 million automobiles.44、Local Content Requirements （国内成分要求）（国内成分要求） What is local content requirement? A local content requirement is a regulation that requires that some specified fraction of a final good be produced domestically. This fracti

33、on can be specified in physical units or in value terms.45 The significance of local content requirement Local content laws have been widely used by developing countries trying to shift their manufacturing base from assembly back into intermediate goods. Firms are allowed to satisfy their local cont

34、ent requirement by exporting instead of using parts domestically.46 Local content laws do not produce either government revenue or quota rents. 47、Other Trade Policy Instruments Export credit subsidies （出口信贷补贴）（出口信贷补贴） A form of a subsidized loan to the buyer of exports. They have the same effect as

35、 regular export subsidies. National procurement（政府采购）（政府采购） Purchases by the government (or public firms) can be directed towards domestic goods, even if they are more expensive than imports.48 Red-tape barriers （烦琐行政程序）（烦琐行政程序） Sometimes governments place substantial barriers based on health, safet

36、y and customs procedures.49 The Effects of Trade Policy: A SummaryTable 8-1: Effects of Alternative Trade Policies50 三、三、Case studyTariff and protection in Japanese agricultureCase studyChinas Import and Export Quotas in 200551 1.1.进口配额商品进口配额商品:“:“入世入世”后对后对5 5种重要农产品，种重要农产品，粮食（小麦、大米、玉米）、棉花、植物油、食糖、粮食（

37、小麦、大米、玉米）、棉花、植物油、食糖、羊毛和化肥，由原来的配额管理改为关税配额管理。羊毛和化肥，由原来的配额管理改为关税配额管理。其他的进口配额在其他的进口配额在20052005年年1 1月月1 1日之前已全部取消。日之前已全部取消。2.2.出口配额商品出口配额商品: :出口许可证管理的商品可分为出出口许可证管理的商品可分为出口配额许可证管理和出口许可证管理商品。出口配额口配额许可证管理和出口许可证管理商品。出口配额可以通过直接分配的方式分配，也可以通过招标等方可以通过直接分配的方式分配，也可以通过招标等方式分配。式分配。52 20052005年实行出口许可证管理的年实行出口许可证管理的4747种货物，