新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展

1、毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目：New Science, Technology and Innovation Developments In India 出 处： Supporting Science & Technology Polices 作 者： PIKAY RICHARDSON 原文:AbstractThis paper reviews the science and technology policies of India and how these have fashioned Indias technology capability over the years. It

2、 shows that while India has achieved enormous strides in the area of science, technology and innovation, inappropriate policies in the past have hampered the development of an effective national innovation system. The paper concludes by drawing lessons for the development of an EU-wide science and t

3、echnology policy2. Trends in STI Developments in India2.2 Trends in Indias Science and Technology PolicyIt has long been recognized that investment in science and technology makes substantial contribution to economic growth in terms of higher growth rates of an economys total factor productivity (Ab

4、ramovitz, 1956, Denison 1962 and Solow, 1957, among others). In addition to direct returns, huge (positive) externalities have also been found to be associated with it (Abramovitz, 1989). Taking cognisance of the importance of technologys role in development, advanced countries nurture continuing de

5、velopment of science and technology and most developing countries adopt R&D policies in the early phases of their development. Science and Technology policy constitutes an integral part of a nations overall industrial policy (Barber and White, 1987). While the former shapes the pace and directio

6、n of technology development, the latter determines the nature of demand. This section reviews the evolution of Science and Technology policy in India since independence。Science and Technology policy of any nation is carved within the background of overall industrial policy. If anything, S&T poli

7、cy is supposed not only to give meaning to, but more importantly, to ensure achievement of the goals of industrial policy. It is therefore the thrust and direction of industrial policy that determines the tenets of any S&T policy, although it must be said that R&D may lead to results that ma

8、y also change the course of industrial policy. Even so, S&T policy has almost always been driven by the goals of industrial development policy. This section therefore describes the development strategy adopted by the government in the various phases of development and analyses the accompanying S

9、&T policy. Two strands of S&T policy have existed policies related to technology transfer from abroad through formal modes such as FDI, technology licensing and capital goods imports and domestic technology generation policies. Having realized that the pursuit of autarkic economic policies i

10、n much of the post-independence period to 1990 was a mistake, India undertook sweeping reforms as a way of speeding economic growth and achieving faster integration into the world economy. Part of these reforms has been the re-enactment of a science and technology policy more suited to the achieveme

11、nt of the goals of building a prosperous nation.3. Response to/Impact of Reforms3.2.2 Global R&D CentersHirwani and Jain (1999) have shown that although market-oriented activities were more important to MNEs in most of the 1990s, technology oriented activities are growing in importance. Hitherto

12、, MNEs had been emphasizing a strategy of customizing products for the Indian market and of obtaining cost-efficient manufacturing facilities in India. Increasingly, however, there has been a clear move towards obtaining access to high quality scientists, engineers and designers in India. Some R&

13、;D centers set up in India by some MNEs conduct contract research for the corporate laboratories outside India. Prior to 1991, the establishment of such R&D centers by MNEs was consciously lacking. Since India signed the GATT Agreement in 1993 and subsequently passed the Intellectual Property la

14、w in 1994, over 60 MNEs have set up R&D centers in technology intensive industries, mostly to take advantage of the strong pool of highly-trained engineers and scientists. Before 1991, there were only two such centers in the country.Apart from the setting up of new centers in India to take advan

15、tage of the liberalized atmosphere, the raison dêtre and mode of operation of existing centers have also been changing by the new market environment. Some companies have completely restructured their R&D centers in India, shifting the focus from developing products for Indian markets to mak

16、ing them centers of global excellence. Others have expanded their. operations and hired many Indian scientists and technologists. This is more evident in the areas of information and computer technology. Such centers conduct R&D for worldwide operations. The availability of high quality labor ha

17、s been a motivating factor in the establishment of centers by companies such as Astra, Unilever, GE and Software Development Centers of Texas Instruments, Oracle, Microsoft and others. Substantial R&D presence has also been established in the areas of pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.3.4 Commer

18、cial Orientation of Public Research OrganizationsIndia has a strong industrial research infrastructure, which was fostered in the early stages of its post-independence growth. While the supply-side was generouslysupported, the industrial research system, prior to liberalization, was mostly geared to

19、import substitution (Bowonder and Richardson, 2000). The publicly funded Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and other bodies tended to be isolated entities with little or no links to industry. In such a protected environment, there was no need to benchmark their activities to those

20、 of global players. Also their activities were only marginally focused on commercialization. The last decade has seen many of these laboratories become more commercially oriented. They have been directing their efforts towards international quality R&D. Two recent major policy thrusts have been

21、(a) an increase in the quest for patenting in Europe and the USA, as a means of engendering a strong desire to undertake R&D and to innovate and (b) an increase in the commercial orientation of industrial research, with a view to making these bodies less dependent on public budgetary support.3.6

22、 FDI Spill-overs and Technological CapabilityLiberalization policies and the response by both foreign and Indian companies alike have had many spillovers that are valuable for Indias technological capability. The growth of the software industry has had wide-ranging impact on the economy. The demand

23、for software imports and the setting up of foreign development centers have contributed to the rapid increase in compensation levels, estimated at an annual rate of 25% in the second half of the 1990s. Other benefits have included stock options and good employment opportunities, thereby slowing brai

24、n drain to some extent. Foreign participation has exposed Indian engineers and scientists to new technologies and made them more sensitive to the protection of intellectual property (software IP piracy was estimated to have risen from 59% to 61% between 1999 and 2000 ( Krishnan, 2001). Another facto

25、r has been the sharp increase in the output of degree- and diploma awarding institutions. The number of institutions offering formal degree-level education in engineering more than doubled between 1990 and 2000, from 339 to 776. Student intake capacity also doubled with 80% rise in the science/engin

26、eering places. Although venture capital organizations started to emerge in India in 1986, the growth of technology-based ventures did not catch up. In the last decade, however, there has been a substantial rise in IT-based venture capital. Nigam (2001) records that venture capital investments reache

27、d $350 million in 2000, as against a figure of less than $5 million in 1995. A large chunk of this amount (70%) was directed into the IT sector. Many new venture capital firms are being set up, either by Indian-based industrialists and young professionals or by Indians based overseas.Although recent

28、 studies (Chandrasekhar and Basavarajappa, 2001; Mehta and Sama, 2001) show that there has been little change in R&D intensity of Indian industry, there has been a clear shift toward increased product development and innovation (Krishnan and Prabha, 1999). This has been accompanied by increased

29、awareness of intellectual property (IP) rights and, by implication, the importance of patenting. According to the US Patent Office, of the ten India-based organizations which filed the largest number of US patents in the 1995-2000 period, three are Indian pharmaceutical companies. The CSIR has also

30、been filing patents in India and the US, all this result of new outward-looking policies.4. Science and Technology Policy in Relation to the Multilateral SystemIndia is a founder member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), w

31、hich came into effect on January 1 1995, after the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. India's participation is based on the need to ensure more stability and predictability in international trade with a view to achieving more trade and prosperity for itself and t

32、he other members of the WTO. The multilateral trading system administered by the WTO aims to bring about orderliness, transparency and predictability in global trade through reductions in tariffs, progressive removal of non-tariff barriers, elimination of trade-distorting measures and systems of val

33、ues to serve as guidelines for national legislation to bring about uniformity in laws and regulations everywhere.The establishment of the WTO has created a forum for continuous negotiations to reconcile differing and oftentimes conflicting interests of members. Although there is unanimity in the pro

34、visions of International Trade theory that free trade enhances global welfare, nationalism and differing goals as well as the appropriation of the benefits of trade lead to many disagreements and conflicts within the global trading system. Conflicts arise between developed and developing countries (

35、as a result of differing developmental needs and goals) and even between developed or developing country blocs. India strongly subscribes to the multilateral approach to trade relations and grants MFN treatment to all its trading partners, including even those, which are non-members of the WTO. With

36、in the WTO, India has committed itself to ensuring that the sectors in which developing countries hold a comparative advantage are adequately opened up to international trade and also that the special Differential Treatment Provisions for developing countries under various WTO Agreements are transla

37、ted into specific enforceable dispensations in order that developing countries are facilitated in their developmental efforts.5. The Future of Science and Technology Policy in IndiaIndia has achieved world-class excellence in a number of science-intensive sectors such as nuclear power, satellite com

38、munications and defense. Since nearly half of R&D spending is incurred in theses sectors, the Government has been concerned to enhance the spin-offs from these investments as well as encourage technology transfers between these research centers and between the centers and the wider industry. Ind

39、ia can also be described as truly scientifically-proficient in many other years.6. Summary and Implications for EU-wide S&T PolicyThe prosperity of any economy depends on the productivity of its economic assets. Many studies have shown the vital role technological innovation plays in engendering

40、 productivity growth and long-run economic growth, and in determining a nations standard of living. In a globalizing world economy, the link between innovative capacity and prosperity has grown ever tighter and a rapid rate of innovation is needed to drive productivity growth. Advanced countries are

41、 becoming increasingly labor-constrained. Maintaining economic growth will, therefore, demand a stepped-up rate of innovation, and perhaps, the importation of skilled labor from other countries, as has been witnessed in some countries in recent years. Economic development in developing countries wil

42、l in a similar vein depend on a more efficient use of resources as well as stepped-up innovation.Like other countries, India in its quest to achieve industrialization and improve the quality of life of its people, has fostered an Industrial and S&T policy since the early years of independence. A

43、lthough it has achieved much progress in the area of science and technology, a policy of isolationism and a failure to develop an appropriate mix of the determinants of an effective NIS, has meant that today, Indias performance is much lower than would have been the case otherwise. The poor performa

44、nce started in the late 1960s. In the protected regime that India went for, it could not build capacity to innovate and produce internationally competitive technologies. The process of liberalization that started in the 1980s and accelerated in the 1990s, however, put competitive pressures on Indian

45、 firms to modernize and upgrade their technologies. At the same time, many MNEs entered the Indian market via FDIs and technology investments. Several foreign owned and jointly-owned R&D centers have been established. Indian organizations and institutions have been encouraged to become more comm

46、ercial-orientated and outward looking. Other measures have included direct intervention in forging links between industry and universities and among firms, strengthening of existing infrastructure and the creation of new institutions that may have important ingredients in the innovation chain.译文:新科学

47、和技术以及创新在印度的发展摘 要本文回顾了印度的相关科学和技术的政策，以及这些政策在过去的一些时期内如何影响印度的科技能力。结果表示，印度在科技创新方面取得了一定的成就，以及在不恰当的政策下，如何影响印度的创新体系的发展。该文章最后总结了欧盟地区国家科技发展的经验和教训。二、印度科学技术政策的趋势2.2 印度的科学和技术政策趋势人们早已认识到对科学和技术方面的投资，在一个经济体的全部的生产要素有较高的增长率的条件下，对经济的增长会产生巨大的贡献。除了直接的回报外，与它有巨大的（积极地）相关联也同样被发现。考虑到科学技术在发展中的重要性，发达国家很自然的持续地进行着科学和技术的发展，而大多数的发

48、展中国家在他们发展的早期阶段则采取研发的策略。科学和技术的政策，组成整个国家的工业政策中不可分割的一部分。然而技术发展的步伐和方向的先前的形状，决定了自然的需求。本节介绍了自独立以来印度的科学和技术政策的演变。任何国家的科学和技术政策都会在整体工业政策的背景中体现出来。不管怎样，科技政策都应该不仅仅是被给出来，但更重要的是，以确保各项工业政策目标的实现。因此工业政策的推力以及方向的确定，决定了任何科学和技术政策的规定。尽管如此，但还是需要说明的是，研发也许会导致或许会改变工业政策的变化。因此，科学和技术几乎一直都被工业发展政策的目标所驱赶着向前发展。因此，本节介绍了政府在不同的发展阶段所采取的

49、各种不同的发展策略，以及分析了伴随科学技术发展的政策。有两个科学技术的标准关于从国外FDI的技术转移的相关政策，技术许可和资本商品进口和国内技术通常政策。当认识到在1990年间大多数的后独立的国家追求自给自足的经济政策是一个错误之后，印度开始着手大规模的改革，作为一种加速经济增长，进行最快的整合来融入到世界经济之中去的方法。部分的改革成为繁荣科学和技术的策略，使之更加适合去实现建设一个富强国家的目标。三、对改革的反应或影响3.2 全球研发中心 Hirwani 和Janin (1999 年) 显示虽然在 1990 年代的大部分以市场为导向的活动，更重要的是多国企业，技术导向型活动也变得日益重要。

50、到目前为止，多国企业已强调了一种针对印度市场和获得成本高效的生产设施的自定义产品的战略。更多的是，尽管如此，在印度有一个比较明显的举动，那就是去获得高品质的科学技术，工程师和设计师。由跨国公司在印度以外建立的一些研发中心与印度进行签订合同的研究。追溯到1991年，由跨国公司建立的这些研究中心极其的缺乏，自从在1993年印度签订了GATT协议以后，以及随后在1994年通过的知识产权法，超过60个的跨国公司在技术密集型的产业中建立了研发中心，充分的利用了训练有素的工程师和科学家，在1991年以前，在这个国家中，仅仅只有两个这样的研发中心。除了在印度设立新的中心，来充分利用印度的自由的气氛以外，现有

51、的中心存在的理由和开办的模式也被新的市场环境所改变。一些公司完全重组其在印度的研发中心，他们的注意力从为印度市场发展产品转移到让他们的研发中心变得全球卓越化。其他的已经扩大了他们的业务，并且雇佣了许多的印度科学家和技术人员，在信息和电脑技术方面表现的更加明显，因此，这些中心进行着全球化的研发活动。高素质的劳动力成为了公司建立这些研发中心的激励因素，例如阿斯特拉，联合利华，通用电气以及德州仪器软件开发中心，甲骨文，微软公司以及其他的公司，在制药和生物研制方面，大量的研发中心被建立起来。3.4 公共研究组织的商业定位印度已经有了较强的工业研发基础设施，这些设施是在其独立后的生长初期所形成的。由于供

52、应方面的大量支持，工业的研发系统，在自由化之前，主要是面向进口替代，科学与工业研究的公共资助委员会，以及其他的一些独立的实体，与工业仅有一点或者没有任何联系。在这种被保护的环境下，也没有必要去对全球玩家的行为设置相关的基准。同样，他们的行为也只仅仅稍微集中在商业化。在过去的几十年中，许多的实验室向着商业取向发展，他们也将他们的努力转向指导国际品质的研究。两个最近的政策的主旨在于，在欧洲和美国对寻求专利的增加。作为一种手段的两性平等观点，强烈要求去着手进行研发和创新，以及在商业导向下的工业研究的增加，使得缺乏独立自主的实体企业减少对公共资助的依赖。3.6 外国直接投资技术溢出和技术容量自由化政策

53、，以及外国和印度公司的反应有着许多技术溢出效应，这些技术溢出效应，对印度的技术接受能力有着相当大的价值。不断增长软件行业对经济的增长有着广泛的影响。软件进口的需求和外国研发中心的建立，对薪酬水平的迅速增长，起着巨大的作用，在20世纪90年代的后半期，年均增长率估计在25%。其他的获益包括股票期权和较好的就业机会从而在某种程度上减缓了人才的外流。外国的参与，已将印度工程师和科学家推向了新的技术，并且使得他们对知识产权的保护变得更加敏感，因此，学位和文凭颁发机构的输出的急剧增长。许多的研究机构在1990的339年到2000年的776，在工程方面提供超了出两倍的正常学位层次的教育，学生在科学或者工程学位方面，也产生的了80%的增幅，吸收能力相当于以前的两倍。虽然风险投资机构开始在1986年出现在印度于，但是基于技术的风险者并没有赶上来。在过去的几十年，基于IT的风险资本却有较大的增长。在2000年，风险资本投资达到了350000000美元。这笔款项的很大的一部，约占70%流入了IT行业，许多新