语法复习资料

1、1.Grammatical Hierarchyn Morpheme, Word ,Phrase, Clause ,Sentence1.3 Phrases n The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the

2、 way in which the words are organized. (1) The noun phrase n The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. n The general pattern of a noun phrase is:l (determiner + ) (premodifier + ) noun (+ postmodifier) (2) The verb phrase n The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head.n A verb

3、 phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) ( + modifier). (2) The verb phrasen In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or non-finite.n A finite

4、verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to tense or subject. n A non-finite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to tense or subject. (3) The adjective phrase n The adjective phrase

5、is a phrase with an adjective as its head.n The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:l (modifier + ) adjective (+ postmoclifier / complementation)n See Lecture 23 in detail (4) The adverb phrase n The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. n The general pattern of an adverb phras

6、e is:l (modifier + ) adverb ( + postmodifier) n See Lecture 24 in detail(5) The prepositional phrase n The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. n The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:l (modifier + ) preposition + complementationn See Lecture 26 in detail2 Subj

7、ect-Verb Concordv Concord means “agreement” between subject and predicate verb in person and number.v 在英语中，句子的主语和谓语动词之间必须在人称和数上保持一致关系，即主谓一致关系。 Principles of Concordv grammatical principle, notional principle, principle of proximityGrammatical concord v It refers to the rule that the verb must match

8、its subject in number and in person. § Everybody was happy with the decision.§ Both boys have their own merits. Notional concordv As the name suggests it is concerned with the subject-verb concord on the semantic basis i.e. the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the not

9、ion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion. § The audience were brought to their feet at the sight of superman in his wheelchair.§ Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.Proximity v It denotes agreement of the verb with a closely precedin

10、g noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject.§ Neither my wife nor I am going to the ceremony.§ No one except his own supporters agree with him. 3 Genitive Nounv CASE is a grammatical category. It denotes the changes in the form of a n

11、oun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence. 3 Pronoun reference v Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns. When a pronoun is used, it must refer to somebody or something. What is referred to is called referent or antecedent. It is t

12、he antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun. 1) Anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference v According to the relative position of the referent or antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric. v When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to

13、point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference; v If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference. v If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers

14、to somebody or something indicated by an extralinguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference. v Examples:§ Bob told Lucy that Ruth was leaving, but she didnt believe him. § (anaphoric reference)§ When he was at college, Alex was a great friend of m

15、ine. § (cataphoric reference)§ (Pointing to the childrens bedroom) Are they asleep? § (situational reference)2) Personal reference v Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners. Personal reference is gen

16、erally anaphoric. It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.v Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions. Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric ref

17、erence can be used instead, but not conversely, eg: § After she weighed anchor, the ship sailed out of the harbour.§ = After the ship weighed anchor, she sailed out of the harbour.§ Mary bought a new dress, but she didnt like it.§ She bought a new dress, but Mary didnt like it.3)

18、 Demonstrative reference v Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners. All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference. As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a

19、clause or sentence or a group of sentences that follow. That and those are rarely used cataphorically. When occasionally so used, that and those often take on sarcastic meanings. Compare:§ Necessity is the mother of invention. This / That is remarkably true.§ (anaphoric reference)§ Li

20、sten to this. There should be no error, no delay, and no waste.§ (cataphoric reference)§ How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.§ (cataphoric reference)Practicev Correct errors, if any, in the following sentences:v 1. The furniture is their

21、s, but the house is ours.v The furniture is theirs, but the house is ours.v 2. Ive bought several paintings of him.v Ive bought several paintings of his.v 3. The professor interviewed the applicant himself.v The professor himself interviewed the applicant.v 4. You probably know to who I am referring

22、.v You probably know to whom I am referring.v 5. I dont like you to arrive late.v I dont like your arriving late.v 6. No one but myself really understands him.v Correct.v 7. Sex education should be taught in high schools because parents are either too scared or too busy to teach the facts of life to

23、 them.v to teach the facts of life to their children.v 8. Since his father is an accountant, he is going to major in it.v major in accounting.v 9. The cottage was situated on a hill which had a splendid view from every window.v On a hill was situated the cottage, which had a splendid view from every

24、 window.4. Determiners Words that precede any premodifying adjectives in a noun phrase and which denote such referential meanings as specific reference, generic reference, definite quantity or indefinite quantity are referred to as determiners.4.2 Collocations between determiners According to their

25、potential position, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners predeterminers postdeterminers5. Dynamic and stative verbs¡ According to lexical meaning, main verbs can be dynamic and stative.¡ Dynamic verbs are verbs that refer to actions.¡ Stative verbs are verbs tha

26、t refer to states, ie to a relatively stable state of affairs.tense, aspect, voice and mood¡ In this section we are going to have a quick survey of the four important grammatical categories of the English verb.¡ Tense, Aspect, Voice, Mood1) Tense and aspect¡ Tense is a grammatical for

27、m associated with verbs that tell of the distinction of time; that is to say, tense and time are at once related and different. Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past time, present time and future time. When the notion of time, which is common to all mankind, is expressed linguistica

28、lly, one way of doing this is by means of tense. In this respect,¡ English differs from French, for instance, which is capable of referring to future time by means of future tense. English verbs have two tenses: the present tense and the past tense. There is no obvious future tense correspondin

29、g to the time/tense parallel for present and past. Instead there are a numer of possibilities of denoting future time. Chinese, which is not an inflectional language, is all the more different. All this goes to show that despite universally each language has its own particularity.¡ Aspect, as a

30、 grammatical term, indicates whether an action or state at a given time is viewed as complete or incomplete. English verbs have two aspects: the progressive aspect and the perfective aspect. A combination of the two tense and the two aspects makes it possible for a finite verb phrase to take the fol

31、lowing eight forms.2) Active voice and passive voice¡ Voice is a grammatical category. It is a form of the verb which shows whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on. English verbs have two voices: the active voice and the passive voice.2) Active voice and passive voice¡ When t

32、he subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the form of active voice; if, on the other hand, the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the form of passive voice.¡ A sentence/clause whose predicator (predicate verb) is passive is called a passive sentence.2) Act

33、ive voice and passive voice¡ The passive voice is formed by the auxiliary be + ed participle of the transitive verb. Since the auxiliary be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six passive constructions:¡ The simple present¡ The simple past¡ The present progressi

34、ve¡ The past progressive¡ The present perfective¡ The past perfective2) Active voice and passive voice¡ Of the three non-finite forms, the infinitive and the -ing participle can occur in the passive, simple and perfective.2) Active voice and passive voice¡ “Modal auxiliary/s

35、emi-auxiliary + infinitive” combinations are made passive by using a passive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.2) Active voice and passive voice¡ When the passive is formed by get + ed participle, it is called get-passive, as distinguished from be-passive, whic

36、h is formed by auxiliary be + ed participle. In the get-passive, which also has the six finite forms, the verb get performs the same function as the auxiliary be, but get is not itself an auxiliary. Unlike the auxiliary be, get cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.

37、1; Compare:¡ It was broken. /It got broken.¡ It wasnt broken. /It didnt get broken.¡ How was it broken? /How did it get broken?¡ When a get-passive is used, stress is usually laid on the result of the action, rather than on the action itself. This construction is often used to de

38、note sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expressions as “In the end”, “Eventually”, “At last”, etc.3) Mood¡ Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact (indicative mood), a command or request (imperative

39、mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis (subjunctive mood). Eg:¡ He goes to church every Sunday.¡ Dont be late for school. Go to school at once.¡ Mother insisted that he go to hospital at once.4) Finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases¡ Depending on whether they are marked fo

40、r tense, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.¡ finite verb phrases¡ non-finite verb phrases 6.two types of passive voicev Be-passive, Get-passive7. Subjunctive Mood What is subjunctive mood？ The basic forms of subjunctive mood Special ways to indic

41、ate subjunctive mood8. Three Non-finite Forms of the English Main Verbs Infinitive-ing ,Participle-ed, Participle9. Types of Sentences In terms of their communicative functions, sentences may be divided into four types: Statements/Declarative Sentences Questions/Interrogative Sentences Commands/Impe

42、rative Sentences Exclamations/Exclamatory Sentences9. Types of Sentences In terms of their construction, sentences may be divided into three types: Simple Sentences Compound Sentences Complex Sentences10. Postponement, Fronting, Inversion Postponement, Fronting, Inversion1. Postponemento Postponement means delaying the appearance of a grammatical unit till a later time.o Before elaborating on this grammatical device, we will start with the prin