英语语言学概论--整理()

1、1Chapter 1 Lan guage 语言1.Design feature (识别特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能产性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnativ

2、e language.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness

3、 (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性 ) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediatesituations of its users.7.duality of structure(结构二重性) The

4、 organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8.culture transmission(文化传播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.in

5、terchangeability (互换性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a syst

6、em.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7

7、) Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns orarrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the wor

8、ds and the sentences are used in fixed patterns thatspeaker of a language can understand each other.4. ( Function of language .) According to Halliday , what are the initial functions of children language? And what are the three functional components ofadult language?I. Halliday uses the following t

9、erms to refer to the initial functions of children s;language:1) Instrumental function.工具功能2) Regulatory function.调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function.互动功能5) Personal function.自指性功能6) Heuristic function.启发功能 osbQtqkfh7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has thre

10、e functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际Chapter 2Lin guistics语言学22) Ideational components. 概念3) Textual components. 语篇Chapter 2Lin guistics语言学3（普通语言学与描写语言学 ）The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is（共时语言学与历时语言学 ） Diachronic linguistics traces the his

11、torical development of the takenplace in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account oflanguage as it is at some particular point in time.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics（理论语言学与应用语言学 ）The former copes with languages with a view to establishing

12、atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practicaltasks.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics（微观语言学与宏观语言学）The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals

13、 with everything that is related to languages.langue and parole （语言与言语）The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latterrefers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual petence and performance（语言能力与语言运用

14、）The former is one knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.speech and writing（口头语与书面语 ）Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.linguistics behavior potential and actual

15、linguistic behavior（语言行为潜势与实际语言行为 ）People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation （横组合关系与纵聚合关系）The former descr

16、ibes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latterdescribes the vertical dimension of a language.verbal communication and non-verbal communication（言语交际与非言语交际 ）Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without usin

17、g language is called non-verbal communication.1. How does John Lyons classify linguistics ?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1）General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2）Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguis

18、tics.3）Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4）Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity .1）Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and th

19、e description.2）Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3）Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branc

20、hes as following:1）Phonetics. 语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2）Phonology. 音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker s native language.3）Morphology. 形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4）Syntax. 句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5

21、）Semantics. 语义学 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6）Pragmatics.语用学 The scope of language:Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language. The scientific process of linguistic study:It involves four stages: collecting data, forming

22、 a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawingconclusions...9.10.general linguistics and descriptive linguisticsconcerned with one particular language.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguisticslanguage and records the changes that have4Chapter 3 Pho netics 语音学1.articulatory p

23、honetics(发音语音学)The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)The study of the way hearers perceive spe

24、ech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant (辅音)Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between thespeech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel (元音)is defined as a sp

25、eech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials (双唇音)Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. pb m w7.affricates (塞擦音)The sound produced by stopping the airstream a

26、nd then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. tXdY tr dr8.glottis (声门)Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel (圆唇元音)Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. u: u OB O10.diphthongs (双元音)Diphthongs are produced

27、by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.eiaioi Quau11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. eiQaiQoiQ QuQauQ12.lax vowels (松元音)According to distinction

28、 of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of theshort vowels,e is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can

29、 be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2. How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factor

30、s.1)The state of the velum2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as follow

31、ing:1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phoneticsis the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phoneticsis the study of the way hearers per

32、ceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.7)Coronal.8)Aspirated

33、.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.5Chapter 4 Phon ology 音位学1.phonemes （音位）Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2.allophones （音位变体）Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizati

34、ons of a particular phoneme.3.phones （单音）The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4.minimal pair （最小对立体）Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5.contrastive distribution （对比分布）If two or more sounds can occur in the same en

35、vironment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change ofmeaning, they are said to be in contrastive plementary distribution（互补分布）If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7.free variation （自 由变异）When two

36、sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, thenthey are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features（区别性特征）A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features（超

37、切分特征）The distinctive （phonological） features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10.tone languages （声调语言）Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word onation languages （语调语言）Intonation languages are those which

38、use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture （连音）Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1） Phonetics is the study of the production, percepti

39、on, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined,organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2） Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to

40、 describe the regularities ofsound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear pit,tip,spit,etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while ph and p are allophones.3.How can we dec

41、ide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1） Thetwo forms are differentin meaning.2） Thetwo forms are differentin one sound segment.3） Thedifferent sounds occurin the same position of the two strings.4. Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1）

42、Contrastive distribution . Sounds m in met and n in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting m for n will result in a change of meaning.2） Complementary distribution . The aspirated plosive ph and the unaspirated plosive p are in complementary distribution because the former occurs e

43、ither initiallyin a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3） Free variation . In English, the word“direct ” may be pronounce in two ways: /di rekt/ and /dia rekt/, and the two differen/asbunds /i/ andcan be said to be in free variation.5.What s t

44、he difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1） Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2）The distinctive

45、（phonological） features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3）Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonatio

46、n and juncture.6.What s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase levelor sentence level7.Whafs the difference between

47、phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate onlythose sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Cha

48、pter 5 Morphology形态学61.morphemes （语素）Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs（语素变体）Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs （形素）Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize mor

49、phemes.2.roots （词根）Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes （词缀）Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. free morphemes （自 由语素）Freemorphemes are those which can exist as individual

50、 words.bound morphemes （粘着语素）Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes（屈折词缀） refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivationalaffixes （派生词缀）refer to affixes that are added to words

51、 in order to change its grammaticalcategory or its meaning.4.empty morph （空语子）Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph（零语子）Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis（直接成分分析）IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression （botha w

52、ordand a sentence） intoa hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents（直接成分）A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents（最后成分）Ultimate constituents a

53、re those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules（形态学规贝 U ） The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8.word-formation process（构词法） Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of fo

54、rming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression （both a word and a sentence） into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified?1）Semantically speaking, morphe

55、mes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2）Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a） All free morphemes are roots but n

56、ot all roots are free morphemes.b） All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.Wha s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a） Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b） Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain

57、the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a） Functionally:i. In flectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii. In flectional affixes do not cause a change

58、in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause achange ingrammatical class.b） In term of position:i. In flectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii. In flectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are

59、present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a） un- + adj. -a

60、dj.b） Adj./n. + -ify -v.c） V. + -able - adj.d） Adj. + -ly - adv.7Chapter 6 Sy ntax 句法学（横组关系）refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.（纵聚合关系）refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.（等级关系）refer to relationships be