Ethnic Internet Use among Chinese Students in the U.S. and Its implication for CrossCultural Adaptation1

1、ethnic internet use among chinese students in the u.s. and its implication for cross-cultural adaptationabstractthe growth of the internet technologies has presented new challenges to traditional cross-cultural adaptation (cca) research. the old conceptualization of ethnic media has been expanded dr

2、amatically in the new media environment. they include not only traditional immigrant media in host countries, but also a vast number of homeland publications that are available online to immigrants and sojourners. past research suggested that ethnic media use deters the cca process. this paper propo

3、ses that use of new online ethnic media may play a different role in cca.guided by uses and gratifications theory, this study investigates how individual differences (i.e., host language competency, lengthy of stay, acculturation attitudes, and loneliness) and internet use motives influenced ethnic

4、internet use of chinese students in the u.s. length of stay, assimilation attitude, social involvement and entertainment motives predicted chinese students ethnic internet use. the study also explored the relationship between ethnic internet use and cca. even though no significant association was fo

5、und between the two, the result indicated some old conclusions reached in the traditional cca research may need to be reevaluated in the internet environment. introductionwith recent developments in communication technologies and globalization of the economy, cross-cultural adaptation (cca) has beco

6、me a prominent social phenomenon that has attracted much attention from scholars of various disciplines. the conceptual linkage between communication and cca has long been recognized. communication is believed to serves as “an essential mechanism that connects people from another culture and the hos

7、t society” (kim, 1997, p. 407). several generally accepted conclusions regarding the centrality of communication in cca have been reached in the past. first, each newcomers social communication activity consists of two basic communication processes: interpersonal communication and mass communication

8、 (kim, 1977, 1988). interpersonal communication is believed to have a greater acculturation function than the mass media (gudykunst & kim, 2003; kim, 1988). second, past research has demonstrated that host communication (i.e., interpersonal communication with members of host country, host media

9、exposure) tends to accelerate cca (i.e., kim, 1977; shah, 1991) whereas ethnic communication (i.e., contact with members of the ethnic group, ethnic media exposure) helps maintain ethnic ties and may deter the process of cca (i.e., kim, 1981, 1984; nagata, 1969). third, many scholars believe that th

10、e direction of cca is toward assimilation and social integration. the growth of new communication technologies has presented new challenges to traditional cca research. for example, the development and popularity of the internet have made it necessary to reconsider the traditional concept of “ethnic

11、 media,” which historically has referred to conventional media such as newspapers and tv stations in host countries that are sponsored by and targeted to ethnic groups (constantakis-vales, 1992). the global reach of the internet enables newcomers to access homeland publications through the world wid

12、e web conveniently (chen, 2004). in this sense, the conceptualization of ethnic media has been expanded dramatically in the new media environment. they include not only traditional immigrant media in host countries, but also a vast number of homeland publications that are available online and probab

13、ly more influential to immigrants and sojourners.furthermore, linking internet use and cca may challenge the dominant assumption that the ultimate direction of cca is toward assimilation. the internet provides more opportunities for newcomers to maintain their ethnic cultural links and cultural valu

14、es. some scholars have argued that new technologies have been used to promote pluralism in many societies and may play an important role in reshaping the cca patterns of immigrants and sojourners. the internet minimizes the geographic and time differences between newcomers hometowns and the host cou

15、ntry. through the internet, newcomers can easily obtain information from their own countries and interact with others with similar interests and cultural backgrounds using their native languages. the strengthened ethnic tie may lead to a more culturally diverse society. u&g provides an appropria

16、te framework for examining the relationship between internet use and cca. due to the following reasons. u&g is a needs-based media research approach. u&g scholars believe people use media to fulfill their basic needs or wants. correspondently, one of the fundamental assumptions in cca resear

17、ch is that humans have an inherent drive to grow and adapt as they face challenges from their environment (kim, 2002). in the process of adaptation, people experience a variety of needs. cultural adaptation and needs satisfaction occur through communication. these assumptions are consonant with u&am

18、p;g notions. as the internet increasingly becoming an important communication tool around the world, it is imperative for cca researchers to consider online communication when examining immigrants/sojourners communication behavior. this study is intended to bridge cca and internet research by examin

19、ing the role of the ethnic internet use in the in the process of cca of chinese students in the united states. hopefully it will provide some insights not only on how and why chinese students use ethnic internet, but also on the relationship between ethnic internet use and cca. cross-cultural adapta

20、tionkim and gudykunst (1988) defined cca as a dynamic socialization process by which individuals interact with a new environment. the goal of cca is to achieve an overall person-environment “fit” for maximization of ones social life chances. in her integrative cross-cultural adaptation theory, kim (

21、1988, 1995, 2001) proposed intercultural transformation as the outcome variable of cca, which consists three key factors: functional fitness, psychological health, and intercultural identity. ward and colleagues (e.g., searle & ward, 1990; ward & kennedy, 1993, 1999; ward, 1996, 1999) divide

22、d the outcomes of cross-cultural adaptation into two domains: psychological (emotional/affective) adaptation and sociocultural (behavioral) adaptation. according to ward and kennedy (1999), sociocultural adaptation refers to “the ability to fit in, to acquire culturally appropriate skills and to neg

23、otiate interactive aspects of the host environment” (p. 660). psychological adaptation refers to a psychological well-being and contentment with the new cultural environment. these two adaptive outcomes appear to be the most important practical outcomes of the cca process and correspond well with ot

24、her cca research. therefore, sociocultural adaptation and psychological adaptation were the two outcomes of cca on which this study focused.cca research has been influenced by the ideological debate between assimilation and pluralism. the term assimilation emphasizes acceptance of the host culture b

25、y an immigrant/sojourner (kim, 1995, 2002). a closely related term, acculturation, has been defined as the process by which individuals acquire some aspects of the host culture. assimilation has been seen as the highest degree of acculturation. these two terms reflect the cultural orientation toward

26、 the host culture. in contrast, the concepts of pluralism emphasize maintaining ethnic ties and original cultures. pluralism leads to sustained ethnic identity and continued heterogeneity. most social science researchers assume that acculturation is a natural phenomenon and that newcomers want to ac

27、culturate to the host culture. this view, however, has been challenged since the 1970s. some scholars argue that in a plural society such as the u.s., an individual has a choice in terms of whether or the extent to which he/she wishes to be acculturated (e.g., berry, 1989; jeffres & hur, 1981).

28、for example, some individuals or ethnic groups may want to maintain their ethnic culture while participating in mainstream society. this “pluralistic” view has gained increasing popularity among researchers during the past decades (e.g., diesing, 1991; thornston, 1996). the discussion about assimila

29、tion and pluralism has special implications for this study because the internet has been claimed to be a powerful communication technology with the potential to promote both cultural convergence and cultural pluralism simultaneously (melkote & liu, 2000). some researchers have argued that cultur

30、al identities of ethnic groups are reinforced in the internet era as the internet facilitates more constant and expanded cultural contacts beyond geographical boundaries. fitzgerald (1992), for example, stated, “an ethnic groups identity, which was once dependent on specific physical places, and the

31、 particular experience available in these spaces, has been significantly influenced by new media because communication technology facilitates time-space compression” (p. 320). studying cca in the new media environment may provide some new insights to this old debate.ethnic internet use and ccathe co

32、nnection between mass media use and cca has been observed as scholars see cca as a special type of socialization or resocialization (gudykunst & kim, 1984; taft, 1977) and mass media as important socializing agents in society (lasswell, 1948). use of host mass media has been observed to promote

33、the acculturation process (e.g., kim, 1988; shah, 1991; subervi-velez, 1986). there are different views, however, on the relationship between ethnic media use and cca in the literature. some scholars argue that ethnic media use, in the long run, retards acculturation (e.g., greenberg, 1983; lee &

34、; tse, 1994). others believe that ethnic media play a dual-role in the cca process. on the one hand, ethnic media preserve the newcomers cultural heritage and strengthen their ethnic values and identities (jeffres & hur, 1983; lee & tse, 1994). on the other hand, ethnic media introduce newco

35、mers to the host society by providing information about the host culture and offering valuable tips on how to adjust to a new environment (zhou & cai, 2002). past cca studies have focused on traditional media such as newspaper, tv, radio, and magazines. to date, only a handful of studies can be

36、located exploring the linkage between the internet and cca. boczkowski (1999), for example, investigated an online discussion group for argentine expatriates and found that the group used a virtual community to reinforce their sense of belonging to their native culture. similarly, melkote and liu (2

37、000) examined the relationship between chinese students participation in a chinese online discussion group and acculturation. they suggested that chinese students and scholars depended on the online discussion group to understand themselves, their new environment, and events in their native country.

38、 a couple of recent studies also suggested an initial link between internet use and cca. as mentioned earlier, chens (2004) survey described the online communication patterns of international students. she found that international students preferred to read native news online. when seeking news onli

39、ne, they used native news websites more than u.s. news websites. ye (2005) investigated the relationships between acculturative stress of east asian international students and their use of the internet. ye found that, on average, students used “english-language internet” more than “native-langu

40、age internet.” “english-language internet” use was negatively related to cultural shock, whereas “native-language internet” use was positively related to cultural shock.these studies represented the initial attempts to uncover how internet use is related to cca, providing a first glance of the inter

41、net use patterns among international students and some foundation for this study.based on the above literature review, this study investigates the relationships between individual factors, ethnic internet use and cca among chinese students in the u.s. due to the newness of the subject, the study is

42、primarily exploring in nature. therefore only research questions are proposed.research questionsone of the main goals of this study is to examine the role of ethnic internet use in cca. past literature suggests that ethnic media use contributes to greater culture maintenance and may deter cca (e.g.,

43、 kim, 1984, 1988; nagata, 1969; shah, 1991). however, this conclusion has been derived largely from studies that examined cca in traditional media environments (e.g., including television and newspapers). the internet may influence cca in a different way than do traditional media. recent literature

44、provides evidence for a more pluralistic view of cca, which suggests that ethnic media consumption and ethnic persistence may not necessarily hinder learning about the host culture and inhibit cca (melkote & liu, 2000). therefore, my first research question asks:rq1a: what is the relationship be

45、tween ethnic internet use and sociocultural adaptation of chinese students? rq1b: what is the relationship between ethnic internet use and psychological adaptation of chinese students?this study was conducted from the u&g perspective, which posits that along with individual differences, motivati

46、on is an important component to consider when explaining peoples media consumption. four individual factors identified as being important in past cca research were included in the study. they are: host language/english competence, length of stay, acculturation attitudes, and loneliness. u&g scho

47、lars believe that motives prompt a person to purposefully select certain media and media content for consumption in order to satisfy needs behind those motives (e.g., katz, et al., 1974). a host of u&g studies have identified various media use motives such as information seeking, entertainment,

48、arousal, social interaction, escape, companionship, and pass time (e.g., greenberg, 1974; papacharissi & rubin, 2000; rubin, 1983). in addition to general media use motives, prior cca research suggests that acculturation motivation and ethnic maintenance motivation are likely to be salient in th

49、e cca context. reece and palmgreen (2000), for example, identified eight motives for indian students use of u.s. television, including the motives of “acculturation” and “reflection on values”. to investigate whether and how individual differences and internet motives together explain chinese studen

50、ts internet use, the following research question is posed:rq2: how do individual differences (i.e., english competence, length of stay, acculturation attitudes, and degree of loneliness) and internet-use motives predict ethnic internet use?methodprocedure and participants an electronic questionnaire

51、 was posted through , an online survey provider. participants were chinese students currently studying at u.s. universities. we sent an e-mail to the presidents of chinese students and scholar association at 21 universities asking them forward our invitation letter that contained the url link to chi

52、nese students through e-mail links or bulletin board systems (bbs). chinese students received the invitation letter, clicked on the url link for the survey site, and filled out the questionnaire. a total of 268 questionnaires provided usable data and were analyzed. the sample was 48.1% male and 51.9

53、% female; 4.6% undergraduate students and 90% graduate students; 47% of the respondents were single, 38% were married and lived with family, and 8% were married and lived alone. they ranged in age from 18 to 43 years (m = 29.19, sd = 5.02). measurementthe questionnaire measured perceived english com

54、petence, length of stay in the u.s., acculturation attitudes, degree of loneliness, internet motives, ethnic internet use, sociocultural adaptation, and psychological adaptation. in the last section of the questionnaire, demographic information was collected to describe the characteristics of the sa

55、mple. participants were asked to provide general information about themselves such as age, age when first arrived in the u.s., gender, marital status, educational degree, and major. individual factors. chinese students english competence was measured with a 5-item self report index adapted from ying

56、 and lieses (1990) measure. length of stay in the u.s. was measured with an original single item. respondents were asked to report how many years they have been in the u.s. the average number of years in the u.s. was 3.96 (sd = 2.80). the ucla loneliness scale (version 3) (russell, 1996) was used to

57、 measure chinese students level of loneliness. respondents scores were summed and averaged to create an index of the degree of loneliness of chinese students (m = 2.70, sd = 0.45, cronbach alpha = .91). acculturation attitudes were measured with a 9-item, 5-point likert scale adapted from berry et a

58、ls (1989) acculturation attitudes scale. the items covered the three acculturation attitudes: assimilation, separation, and integration. three items for each acculturation attitude were included addressing cultural traditions, lifestyle, and friendship issues. the means of the assimilation subscale,

59、 separation subscale, and integration subscale were 2.14 (sd = 0.66, cronbach alpha = .49), 2.89 (sd = 0.69, cronbach alpha = .48), and 4.15 (sd = 0.54, cronbach alpha = .55) respectively.internet motives. we used a revised version of the internet use motives scale developed by papacharissi and rubin (2000) to measure chinese students internet use motives in the context of cca. to tap the specific internet use motives in the cca context, we included six “acculturation” and two “reflection on values” items from reece and palmgreen