(31) Subordination

1、Lecture 31Subordinations (1)31.1 Coordination and subordination Coordination (并列结构并列结构) and subordination (从属结构从属结构) are two devices for combining and relating ideas. These are commonly used to connect clauses or sentences in order to establish various semantic relationships. (1) Coordination (Lectu

2、re 30) Coordination is realized by coordinators (also termed coordinating conjunctions) which join two syntactic units at the same level. Different coordinators have different meanings and thus give rise to different relations between conjoined units. Therefore, it is important that we identify the

3、coordinators and their uses. Here is a list of common coordinators: Central coordinators (the most common ones): and, or, but Correlative coordinators: bothand, eitheror, notbut, notnor, neithernor, not onlybut also Semi-coordinators: nor, so, yet Quasi-coordinators: as well as, as much as, rather t

4、han, more than This is not an exhaustive list. In fact, there are still other coordinating conjunctions, such as: while, whereas, and coordinating adverbs, such as: accordingly, furthermore, hence, however, nevertheless, therefore. (2) Subordination Subordination refers to the linking of two units,

5、usually 2 clauses, at different syntactic levels. The clause on the higher level is termed the main clause and the attached clause on the lower level, the subordinate clause. Subordination is realized by subordinators. Different subordinators have different meanings and thus give rise to different r

6、elations between conjoined units. Subordinators, in terms of word formation, can be classified into simple subordinators, complex subordinat- ors, correlative subordinators and marginal subordinators.Generally speaking, coordination establishes a relation-ship between ideas of approximately equal im

7、portance, while subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other. 2) Subordinators a) Simple subordinators Simple subordinators, also known as “one-word sub- ordinators”, include: afteralthoughas becausebeforedirectly forifimmediately le

8、stlikeonce sincethatthough till unlessuntil how(ever)what(ever)when(ever) where(ver) whereuponwhether whichwhile / whilstwho(ever) whomwhosewhy b) Complex subordinators Complex subordinators, also known as “multi-word subordinators”, are composed of two or more words. Some of these end in “that”: as

9、suming (that) (假定,设想) but that (若非,要不是) considering (that) (考虑到;就而言;鉴于) except (that) (除了;只是) excepting (that) (除了) for all (that) (尽管,虽然;尽管如此) given (that) (考虑到,鉴于;倘若;假定) granted (that) (假定;就算) in order that (目的在于,为了) insomuch that (竟然到的程度,以致) in that (由于,因为) in the event that (如果,万一,倘若;在情况下) now (

10、that) (既然,由于) provided (that) (如果,假如,倘若,只要) providing (that ) (如果,假如,倘若;考虑到) save that (除之外;只是) seeing (that) (鉴于;由于,既然) so (that) (以便,以致;结果是;为的是) such that (如此以致于) supposing (that) (假如,如果) Some end in “as”: according as (依据,按照,依照,视而定) as far as (据,就而言) as long as (只要, 如果) as soon as (一经.;立即.;一.就.)

11、forasmuch as (鉴于,既然,由于) inasmuch as (由于,因为;在限度/范围内) insofar as (在限度/范围内) insomuch as (因为,由于;到程度或地步,以致) Others include: as if as though in case c) Correlative subordinators Subordinators of this group are composed of two cor- relative words, including: asas (not so/asas) asso (象.那样也就.;随着.也就.) sothat

12、suchas suchthat thethe whetheror more / lessthan no soonerthan barely / hardly / scarcelywhen d) Marginal subordinators Marginal subordinators refer to some free lexical com- binations. This group is sometimes hard to distinguish from complex subordinators: even if if only just as only if every time

13、 (that) the instant (that) the moment (that) for fear that for the reason that (因为) due to the fact that (因为) by reason that (因为) on the grounds that (由于; 根据) in the sense that (在某种意义上或在某种程度上) in spite of the fact that (尽管) in the light of the fact that (鉴于; 由于; 按照, 根据) on account of the fact that (

14、由于; 根据) regardless of the fact that (不管, 不顾) 31.2 Subordinate clauses (Finite) Syntactically, subordinate clauses can be subdivided into nominal, relative and adverbial clauses. 1) Nominal clauses (introduced by that or by wh-words) Nominal clauses, also known as “noun clauses”, can perform most fun

15、ctions of a noun phrase. This kind of clause is usually introduced by “that” or by a wh- word such as who, what, which, where, when, how, why, etc. Nominal clauses can function as subject, object, sub- ject complement, appositive, and prepositional comple-mentation. (1) Subject Clausee.g.: That she

16、will refuse the offer seems unlikely. What he does is often at variance with what he says. When the plane takes off has not been announced. Where the meeting will be held hasnt been decided. Who made the long distance call is not important. Which team will win the match is still unknown. How he had

17、escaped is unclear. Whether shes coming or not doesnt matter too much. Whoever wants the book may have it. Whichever of you comes first will receive a prize. Whatever happened to her is still a secret. Whenever you come is OK. Wherever he put it remains a mystery. It is very likely that he will fail

18、 again in the race. It is doubtful whether she will be able to come. It hasnt been made clear when the new road is to be opened to traffic. Has it been found out who set the record? It is obvious now which plan is better. It was clear enough what she meant. It is a mystery to me how it all happened.

19、 (2) Object Clausee.g.: He realized that he did something wrong. He always means what he says. Could you tell me where the booking office is? Let me imagine how you escaped. We must find out who did all this. Have you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate? I wonder why he had left. Ill

20、read whichever book you recommend. Has she informed you when they hold the meeting? Tell me whether or not youre interested in him. Ill give you whatever help you need. They give whoever came to the meeting a brochure. He took it for granted that she liked him too. We all think it strange why she di

21、dnt show up at the meeting. I remember I made it quite clear to you what I was badly in need of. (3) Subject complement (Predicative Clauses)e.g.: Lao Wangs suggestion is that the meeting be put off. China is no longer what it used to be. What the police want to know is when you entered the room. Th

22、ats where we differ. The trouble is how we go there. The problem is who should be responsible for it. That is why they decided to put the discussion off. The problem is which is right and which is wrong. Things are not as they seemed to be. His order is whoever comes should be welcome. My idea is wh

23、ichever will do. (4) Appositive Clausese.g.: The problem where we can get the book needed is unresolved. The question whether it is right or wrong depends on the result. He made a promise that he would never come late. I have no idea when he will be back. (5) Prepositional complementatione.g.: Wheth

24、er that is a good solution depends on how you look at it. Im fully aware of what a serious mistake Ive made. She hesitated as to whose advice he should take. She was never satisfied with whatever her husband had ever done.引导名词性从句的从属连词引导名词性从句的从属连词 if 与与 whether 的比较的比较:1. 当 whether 用来引导主语从句主语从句时, 既可以直

25、接位于句首, 也可以位于句末; 如果位于句末, 要用先行词 it 作形式主语。if 虽然也可以用来引导主语从句, 但它只能位于句尾, 句首用形式主语 it 。e.g.: It is still uncertain whether / if she is coming. Whether we need it is a different matter. 2. whether 与 if 从句引导宾语从句宾语从句时, if 与 whether 通用; 但句子中若有 or not 而且又不在句末时不得用 if。e.g.: I dont know whether / if we need it. It

26、does not matter whether / if she will come or not. It does not matter whether or not she will come. 如果 whether 引导的宾语从句宾语从句置于句首, 不能用 if 来替 换, 以免引起歧义。e.g.: Whether he has met Tom or not, I cant remember. 如做介词的介词的宾语宾语时只可用 whether。 e.g.: He was worried about whether he passed the exam.3. whether 从句做补语补语

27、(表语从句表语从句)时, 一般不用 if 代之。 e.g.: The problem is whether we need it. 4. whether 可以用在动词不定式动词不定式之前, if 却不能这样用。 e.g.: I dont know whether to go or not.5. whether 可以用在名词之后, 引导同位语从句同位语从句, if 则没有这种用法。e.g.: The question whether we need it has not yet been considered.6. 若 if 在句子中容易被误解为“假如”而引导一个副词从副词从句句时, 应该用 w

28、hether. e.g.: Let me know whether you are coming. Let me know if you are coming. (告诉我你来不来。)(如果你要来,告诉我。) 2) Relative clauses (introduced by that, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, etc.) (See Lecture 33) 3) Adverbial clauses (introduced by most of the sub-ordinators except that, which, who, whom,

29、whose, etc.) Adverbial clauses are those that perform the function of adverbial in a complex sentence. Semantically, this kind of clause can be subdivided into adverbial clauses of time, place, manner, cause, result, purpose, condition, and concession. (1) Adverbial Clauses of Time They are introduc

30、ed by when / while / as / as soon as / before / after / since / till / until / once / the moment / theminute / every day / every time / whenever / ever since / the instant / directly / immediately / instantly e.g.: I began to like him the first time I met him. Be sure to call on us next time you com

31、e. (2) Adverbial Clauses of Place They are introduced by where/wherever/everywheree.g.: Where there is a will, there is a way. Wherever there is oppression, there is resistance. (3) Adverbial Clauses of Manner They are introduced by as / just as / as if (though) / the way / how / according as e.g.:

32、He acted as if/though nothing had happened. Ill go or stay according as the situation requires. I should thank you rather than you thank me. (4) Adverbial Clauses of Cause They are introduced by as / because / since / now that / seeing (that) / considering that / not thatbut that / since / now that

33、/ seeing e.g.: I do it because I like it.Im glad (that) I have been assigned a flat.Im proud you have got the first prize.Im sorry I havent done as much as I should.She was angry that he had criticized her for her laziness. Other adjectives and -ed participles:annoyed, surprised, ashamed, disappoint

34、ed, delighted, pleased, satisfied, convinced, determined, aware, sure, certain, anxious, confident, content, afraid, etc. (5) Adverbial Clauses of Result They are introduced by that / so that / sothat / such that / with the result that e.g.: Bring it nearer (so) that I may see it better. We left in

35、such a hurry that we forgot to lock the door. (6) Adverbial Clauses of Purpose They are introduced by that / so that / in order that / for fear that / lest / in case e.g.: He jotted the name down for fear that he should for- get it. Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold. (7) Adverbial

36、 Clauses of Condition They are introduced by if / unless / in case / suppose / supposing / provided (that) / so (as) long as / so far as / on condition (that) / but that e.g.: Granted that this is true, so what? Were I to do it, I would never leave it unfinished. (8) Adverbial Clauses of Concession

37、They are introduced by though / although / no matter / even if (though) / as / however / whatever e.g.: Old as he is, Lao Li is full of energy. Ill give you firm support, come what may. (9) Adverbial Clauses of Comparison They are introduced by than or as. (由于里面常有一些成分没有表示出来, 这类从句多数看来都是不完全的。)e.g.: He

38、 ran as fast as a horse. The work was finished earlier than we had expected. (10) Other adverbial clausese.g.: Make sure that everything is ready in time. Take care that Xiao Ming shouldnt misunderstand you. Ive made up my mind that I must sell the house.The sooner, the better. (Adverbial Clause of

39、Proportion)31.3 Some few notes on adverbial clauses (omitted)Exercise A:1. The film I saw yesterday was dull.2. If/Provided that the weather keeps fine, I see no reason why3. Because he didnt get up early enough, he missed the train.4. A German whose acquaintance I made in Hamburg last year is comin

40、g to see me.5. One of the students who were trapped in the cave has already been brought out.6. Because/As she spoke French rapidly, I couldnt understand her.7. As any of these problems can be solved by ordinary intelligence and hard work, none of them are too difficult for us.8. Because illness kep

41、t him away from school, he didnt get the prize.9. The auditorium might be the place where I lost my pen.10. As/When/Whenever he ate too little and worked too hard for weeks on end, he became ill.11. When/As he came out of the Conference Room, he was surrounded by reporters.12. While my wife was, I w

42、as trying to13. Unless you promise, you shall not14. His mother waited up until he came home.15. As/When/After/Because he had spoken for three hours, he had a sore throat.Exercise C:1. He urged that I drive carefully.2. He ordered that the men remain in camp.3. She insisted that we go there on foot.

43、4. He asked that his sister cook dinner.5. She requested that I telephone her family.6. Grandmother urged that we bring the children for the summer.7. He demanded that I answer all the questions.8. Our parents insist that we come home by ten.9. The doctor ordered that the nurses watch the patient ca

44、refully. 10. She insisted that we tell her the truth.11. They requested that we sit down and have a cup of tea.12. The hostess urged that we all stay for dinner.13. The rules require that players wear tennis shoes14. The boss suggests that his secretary learn shorthand.15. The policeman ordered that

45、 the men move on.16. The union leader urged that the members accept the offer.17. The general commanded that his troops advance into the town.18. The real estate agent suggested that we sell the house.19. The captain ordered that the crew abandon ship. 20. The editor insisted that we change the title of the book.Exercise D:1. Before John came home, I had finished reading the newspaper.2. While we w