硬件描述语言与数字系统开发第8章10

1、session 5- how to write introduction section(ii) i. referring to sources in academic writing 1.1 choosing a reporting verb in reporting what other writers have done or said, it is often necessary to say both what they did and what they found or what they concluded from the findings. e.g. pirani and

2、renyolds (2003) studied aspects of safety training in a merseyside factory and demonstrated the relative ineffectiveness of posters and warning notices in persuading employees to adopt safer working practices.useful words for citations1) halliday (1978) claims/claimed that also: argue, assert, belie

3、ve, contend, propose, state, suggest, etc.2) mckinlay (1983) found that also: conclude, demonstrate report, show3) sarangi and roberts (1999) examine(d) discourse in institutional contexts. also: analyze, consider, explore, investigate, study, survey, etc.4) according to swales (1990), article intro

4、ductions can be analyzed in terms of a four-move structure. as suggested by swales (1990), article introductions can be analyzed in terms of a four-move structure. also: as argued/shown, etc. classifying reporting verbs we can classify reporting verbs according to function and according to meaning.

5、a. function we can divide reporting verbs into 3 groups according to their function. verbs can report:classification of reporting verbs by funcionwhat the author doeswhat the author sayswhat the author thinks/feelssurveyinvestigatedividestatediscussarguethinkbelieveagreeb. meaning we also need to th

6、ink carefully about the meanings of reporting verbs. some verbs report the ideas in a source in a neutral way, but other are more interpretative.task one where would you put the following verbs on the cline? suggest, insist, emphasize, indicate, observe, argue, describe, say, focus,consider, find, p

7、oint outreport, suggest, claim, conclude, identify, prove, state, declare, contendthe grammar of reporting verbs there are three basic forms that are used with reporting verbsa) verb + noun mirvis and lawler (2004) showed a correlation between morale and both attendance at work and staff turnover.b)

8、 verb + that + sentence mendhelsson (2003) argued that the great pyramids were built as a method of creating an integrated human community the size of a state. c) verb + wh-word + sentence freeman (1987) showed how stakeholders can affect the achievement of an organizations purpose.task twochoose an

9、 appropriate verb or verbs for the following contexts1. leavitt (2000) suggested/identified/ claimed that we need to consider three factors if we wish to influence another.2. gill (2002) identified/reported/found that 67% of her respondents regarded appraisal schemes as valueless.3. langrish et al.

10、(2003) suggested/ concluded/identified the following factors that affected success.4. research by hax and majluf stated/ declared/ reported how structures can constrain strategy.5. sheth and frazier suggested/pointed out/ contended that portfolio analysis models are not adequately linked to objectiv

11、es.6. cooper suggested/concluded/proved sources of stress.ii. reporting other research: tense in the reporting verb, predicting it, passive and reporting noun 1. choice of tense in the reporting verb: tense and focus combinations the rules given below are a guide only. you will find that there is co

12、nsiderable variety in the literature you read. (i) when the focus of your citation is on the information, i.e. there is no reference to researcher activity, the present tense is normally used in the reporting verb. the present tense is used when the information you are presenting is generally accept

13、ed as a fact.focus on informationtopicverbfact(reference)the senior managers jobtendsto be a very hectic one, dealing with peers, outsiders and subordinates(carlso, 1951; mintzberg, 1975) (ii) when the focus is on the research area of several authors, the present perfect tense is normally used. look

14、 at the following examples: economists have suggested that in an uncertain environment firms cannot establish the conditions that are necessary for achieving financial maxima (simon, 1955; cyert and march, 1963). more recent academic literature has emphasized the superiority of japanese managements

15、attention to physical control and organization of productive resources (hartley, 1987; schonberger, 1982). the imfs policies have been heavily criticized for placing most of the burden of adjustment on the debtor countries, even where the problem has been caused by factors outside their control (gri

16、ffiths-jones, 1987; george, 1988) the general pattern is summarized below:focus on research area (several authors)authorsverb (present perfect)topic(reference)economistsmore recent academic literaturehave suggestedhas emphasizedthat in an uncertain environmentthe superiority(simon, 1955; cyert &

17、 march, 1963)(hartley, 1987; schonberger, 1982)topicverb (present perfect)(extension)(reference)the imfs policieshave been (heavily) criticizedfor placing(griffiths-jones, 1987; george, 1988) (iii) the present perfect tense is also used in general statements that describe the level of research activ

18、ity in an area. these statements are sometimes written without references. look at the following examples: many writers have argued that objectives are not helpful unless they are capable of being measured and achieved. little research has been done on the process of strategy formulation in organiza

19、tions. the general pattern is summarized below:focus on level of research activitylevelverb (present perfect)topicmany writerslittle researchhave arguedhas been donethat objectiveson the process of strategy formulation (iv) the simple past tense is used to report the findings of named writers. for e

20、xample: fairfield-sonn (1987) constructed a three-stage, decision-based, strategic model for guiding small firms in establishing a training and development program. maurer and fay (1986) concentrated on the legal appropriateness of selection methods in small businesses, whereas holley and wolters (1

21、987) examined the employment-at-will concept as an issue for small firms. finally, gatewood and field (1987) surveyed 100 small businesses owners perception of their firms personnel problems, findings that many owners are not even aware of their own failures in dealing with personnel issues. (hornsb

22、y, j.s. & kuratko, d.f. (1990) human resource management in small business: critical issues for the 1990s. journal of small business management, 28 (3) : 10.) the general pattern is summarized below:“author focus”: findings from particular studiesauthorreferencereporting verb (past)(that)finding

23、sfairfield-sonn(1987)constructed-a three-stagedin this pattern there is considerable variety. the main verbs in this pattern can refer to what a previous researcher did (investigated, studied, analyzed, etc.) and in general, we use the past simple for these verbs. however, the verb can also refer to

24、 what a previous researcher wrote or thought (stated, concluded, claimed, etc.), and there is much more scope for choice here, e.g.jones (1987) concluded/has concluded/concludes that illiteracy can be related to2. tense in the reported findingsreported findingjones (1987) foundjones (1987) foundthat

25、 illiteracy was correlated most closely with poverty.that illiteracy is correlated most closely with poverty.the tense you choose in the reported findings shows your attitude towards the findings or your interpretations of the source authors attitude towards the findings.you may feel that:(i) the fi

26、ndings of a particular study are generally accepted as fact;(ii) the findings of a particular study are limited to that study but are not to be accepted as true in all cases;(iii) the author(s) of the study you are citing may themselves feel tentative about their findings; or they may not be reporti

27、ng findings at all but making suggestions or proposals. depending on your attitude you may choose the present tense, the past tense or various modal auxilaries.findings accepted as fact + present tensefindings limited to one study + past tensewebbs survey (1987) found that 90% of south africansbough

28、t irradiated food.tentative findings + modal auxiliarybruhn (1986) argued that marketing of irradiated food would be different.3. predicting it, passive and reporting noun structures 3.1 a predicting it or passive structure can be used to change the focus so that the source is no longer at the begin

29、ning of the sentence. for example： it is claimed that the more conventional consumers changed their attitude to food irradiation after group discussion with an educated group leader (bruhn et al, 1986).1. notice that these predicting it clauses can only be used with verbs which follow the grammatica

30、l structure: verb + that + sentence.2. notice that you can also use a passive construction to remove the focus from the source:more conventional consumers are claimed to change their attitude to food irradiation after group discussion with an educated group leader (bruhn et al, 1986).exercise rewrit

31、e the following sentences using a predicting it or a passive structure. focus on the information rather than the source. (you will need to make grammatical and lexical changes to use the passive in example 2)1. bruhn et al (1987) found that alternative consumers increase their opposition to food irr

32、adiation after education programmes.2. bruhn et al (1987) suggest that the provision of relevant and factual information by the government may overcome consumer opposition to food irradiation. it is also possible to use a noun in place of a verb in order to refer to a source. this structure can also

33、 remove the focus from the source (but not always; see (ic)(ia) lambert (1975) suggests that the experiments are of an uncertain nature.(ib) the suggestion that the experiments are of an uncertain nature (lambert, 1975)(ic) lamberts (1975) suggestion that the experiments areexercise rewrite the foll

34、owing sentence pairs into one sentence using a noun group to express the idea being reported. be careful about where you acknowledge the source and you may also have to change the grammar and/or choose another reporting noun i.e. not the noun from the reporting verb. (iii) webb (1983) estimated that

35、 90% of south africas consumers would buy irradiated food. this means that marketing of irradiated food in south africa is likely to be successful. (iv) wills (1986) states that thousands of tons of wheat and approximately 100,000 tons of other foods are being processed each year in 13 countries. th

36、is shows that the practice of food irradiation is becoming more widespread. as well as taking the focus away from the source, the process of turning verbs into nouns allows us to pack more information into one sentence. for example:(iia) who (1985) claims that the practice of food irradiation is saf

37、e and effective.(iib) the claim that food irradiation is safe and effective (who, 1985) has been challenged by researchers ()referring to the literature quotation and paraphrase when to quote as a general rule, you should avoid quotation in essays. it is more appropriate to present the ideas and inf

38、ormation in your own words than quote another writer. however, there will be time when you have good reason for quoting than paraphrasing 1. because you want to emphasize the specific content of the authors words rather than the idea or information, for example, to give an authors exact definition o

39、f something, or to draw the readers attention to a difference between the comments of two of more authors. 2. when the author is saying something particularly contentious, for example, when they are critical of another writer. 3. when you think that the author has made a point particular clearly and

40、 succinctly . as a rule, quotation shouldnt take more than 10% of an essay.advice on using quotations 1. it is considered bad practice to misquote, so check the quotations very carefully. 2. a quotation should be relevant and integrated within the text. what is wrong with the following extract?advic

41、e on using quotations brown has defined the critical period for language learning as “the critical period for language learning is a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire.”advice on using q

42、uotations it should relate to what comes before and after and is often used to support a point that you have already made in your own words.advice on using quotations 3. if the quotation is short, continue writing on the same line, enclosing the quoted words in quotation marks. for example a 1967 ho

43、use condition survey in england and wales showed that a total of 1.8 million dwellings were statutorily “unfit for human habitation”advice on using quotations 4. all punctuation relating to the quoted words should be inside the quotation marks.in-text reference conventions the most common reference

44、system is the author-date system, also known as the harvard system. the particular advantages of the author-date system are that:1. the reader can see whose work you have used and when it was published2. making revisions to the reference list of inserting other references is relatively easy, you don

45、t have to re-number all the citations as you might have to with a numerical system3. the use of eth authors name as the sentence subject can sometimes help avoid complicated grammarsummary of the main in-text referencing conventions in the author-date system 1. integral citations name the researcher

46、 as a sentence-element in the reporting sentences： kennedy and edwards (1998)list a total of six conditions necessary for change. one exception to a strong literature-citation requirement was discovered by cooper (1985)in her study of ieee publications. 2. in a non-integral citation, the name of the

47、 researcher occurs in brackets : one relevant development has been a growing sense that cognitive models of writing process, such as the influential carnegie mellon model (e.g.flower and hayes, 1981) lacks a crucial social dimension. 3. if you give a quotation, it is usual to include the page number

48、: nida(1998:26)holds the view that “language analyses for specific purposes begin in quantitative studies of the linguistic properties of functional varieties of registers of a language (barber, 1962;halliday, mcintosh and streven, 1964) 4. if the reference is to a single text written by more than 3

49、 people, use the abbreviation et al. (short for et alii meaning “and others”) .applied to the design of english language teaching project and programs (alderson and scott, 1992;weir and roberts, 1994;murphy et al., 1995) 5. if the reference is to one author quoted in the writing of another in the ac

50、ademic context,a genre with high potential for conflicting purposes is that of the student written examination (searl 1969, in horowitx 1986) try to avoid such reference unless tracing the original source is impossible.6. if the reference is to electronic information,the style is the same of that fo

51、r paper reference. along side and better sharing of lessons learned (oesp 1997)in textthe reference list:oesp.1997 result-oriented monitoring and evaluation:a handbook for programme managers. new york:oesp handbook series, united nations development programme. /undp/eo/monitor.htm 7. use

52、 surname only in the reference. stephen brown and david white(1996) confirm the findings of .whats wrong with this ?1. to take an obvious case, there are discemible difference between section of research articles, hopkins and dudley-evants,19882. folkes 1984 extends this line of research.3. useful p

53、art characterizations of this variety are provided by widdowson (79) 4. a number of researchers (e.g. krishnan and vally;1979 valle and wallendorf, 1977) have examined . 5. tyler;caine;hirschman and katx (1981)suggest that case studies offer particular 6. the methodology developed by john kelly (199

54、6) involves negotiating the syllabus with students and sponsors reference list referring to books in reference lists the name of the author comes first followed by his/her initials: earl, p./ drucker, p. more than one author, list them like this new, c. and myers, a.continued the name is followed by

55、 the year of publication,sometimes in brackets: gupta, p.(1982) cicarelli, a. and narayan, j. 1980 in some conventions the year is quoted at the end of the reference: underhill, n. testing spoken language. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1987.continued the title of the book is given in full in italics. the title is followed by the place of publication and the name of the publisher:-referring to a paper in a book where reference is to one paper in a book which is a collection of papers, it is usual to list:1. the author of the paper2. the date3