英语委婉语及其社会影响

1、英语委婉语及其社会影响 abstract language communication is an important method to maintain social relationship, so people often use the indirect or pleasant expressions in the place of those considered unpleasant, rude or offensive in communication. it is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of soc

2、ial phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. it reflects some kinds of corresponding cultural traditions. this paper mainly focuses on the ways of expression, the major function and the social influence of euphemism in english. and the first part elaborates upon the different expressions of euphemism in

3、english, divided into four parts: figure of speech, semantic method, the variety of pronunciation and spelling form and grammar. and then it makes study the appliance of euphemism on three functions: avoidance, courtesy, disguise in social life, and discusses the positive and negative influences of

4、euphemism. to know these could help us to understand the mode of thinking, social values, moral concepts, and cultural traditions in english-speaking country, and could improve our language communicative ability. key words: euphemism, application, social influence, positive, negative 【摘 要】 语言交际是人类以维

5、系社会关系的重要手段,因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言,而是采取迂回曲折的方法来表达思想,交流信息,它不仅是种语言现象,而且是社会现象和文化现象。委婉语言体现了相应的社会文化传统。本文主要阐述了英语委婉语的构成方法以及它的社会影响,并着重从修辞手段,语义手段,构词手段及语法手段对委婉语言作了较全面的分析,并对委婉语在交际中的语用功能和表达方式做了一些探讨,从委婉语的“避讳”功能,“礼貌”功能和“掩饰”功能三个方面探讨了委婉语在社会生活中的运用,了解委婉语在运用中的积极作用和消极作用, 有助于我们更深入的了解英语国家人们的思维方式、社会价值观、道德观以及文化风俗,对

6、于提高自身言语交际功能是十分必要的。 【关键词】 委婉语; 运用; 社会影响; 积极;消极 1. introduction euphemism is originally from greek, meaning, “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. its definition in oxford english dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant, mild, or indirect words or

7、 phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”1 the appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. when giving up a taboo word, people will find another new one to take the place of it, which creates a euphemism. the other aims to avoid offensiveness dur

8、ing the communication. it is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term. in english language, euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. in order to achieve the aim of “taboo”, it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in or

9、der to achieve the aim of “politeness”, it is used to avoid the inelegant things2, which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. it is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon and

10、 cultural phenomenon. euphemism in use differs from person to person, from profession to profession, even from class to class3 , thats why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of english culture. to grasp the english euphemism can not only help u

11、s open our eyes, but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. this paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in english and to make acknowledge of its social influence, which could help us use euphemism in a correct way. 2. ways to express euphemism 2.1. figure of speech 2.1.1. meto

12、nymy. that is to us e the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. it can be divided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. for example: “to be fond of the bottle” is

13、a euphemism for “liking to drink”. 2) to use the entirety instead of the part. for example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “limb” refers to “leg”. for some special occasions, the part can be used instead of the entirety. in australian english “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner

14、”. 3) to use the tools to take the place of the objects. for example, “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. it can refer to “thief”. 4) to use raw materials to take the place of finished products. for instance, “poppy” is a kind of flower, but it also refers to “opium”. 5) to use characteristics to t

15、ake the place of objects. for example, “hellow” is a greeting word, and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) to use proper words to replace the objects. for example, “napoleon”

16、is a french golden coin on which there is napoleons head portrait. “borstal” is a name of countryside in kent in britain. it can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”. sometimes, some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. t

17、hey are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. for instance, take above-mentioned “poppy”, now if you look up this word in the dictionary, you can find the meaning of “opium”, it has lost its euphemistic function. and, if you do not know the background, you can not

18、know the meaning of “napoleon” and “borstal”. therefore, we can see the importance of knowing the background of english culture. it can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it. 2.1.2. metaphor to use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive thi

19、ngs. for example, wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which, though conducted by rules, does not meddle unduly with a gentlemans private affairs. (o. henry, the cop and the anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”4, many euphemisms for “death” were created

20、 by way of metaphor, such as going to his long home, to be home and free, to go to sleep, to sleep the long (or eternal, never-ending) sleep, to rest in peace, to be at rest, to go to heaven (or paradise), to join ones ancestors, to be gathered to ones fathers, to join the immortals. more examples a

21、re: agedsunset years, to be poorto be pinched, to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to bribeto grease somebodys palm; handcuffs

22、bracelets. 2.1.3 personification peoples names are often used to replace taboo words. for example, “big harry” refers to “heroin” because “harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. in 19th century, it was called “ my aunt jones”, “mrs. jones”, “s

23、ir john”, “sir harry”, “the henry”, while in 20th century, it was called “jakes”, “john” etc. but the latter color of personification becomes weak. the first letter can be written in small letter. people just use it as a common noun. in fact, they have lost the eup hemistic function. there are many

24、humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) my friend has come. 2) i have a visitor. 3) my cousins/country cousins have come. 4) my auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) little sister is here. 6) ive got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come. 2.1.4. analogy in the euphemisms

25、 for occupation people often use analogy, which makes the humble name more elegant5 , for example, “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. it is borrowed from french word “chef de cuisine”. “beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker

26、”. there also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon, beauty parlour, and stylist parlour. 2.1.5. ellipsis that is to omit the offensive words while speaking, such as to be expecting (a baby), to have (sexual) relations with somebody, to take precautions (against pregnancy), to dep

27、art (from this world). of course, such phrases should be put into a certain context, which can express the meaning of euphemisms. 2.1.6. periphrasis it is an expression of beating around the bush. though it is a muddled acting, its aim is to avoid offending others, and to be more polite6. if someone

28、 asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment, he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. such way of speaking is humorous, sweet and agreeable, such as to dieto close ones eyes, to expire, to breathe ones last; to defecate and to urinateto wash ones hands, to ease or relieve onese

29、lf, to do ones business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom, cloakroom; fartwind from behind; womens underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sack; to be in prisonto live at th

30、e governments expense. teachers often use this expression to avoid the students and their parents awkwardness. for example, laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “lies” i

31、s called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is cal

32、led “ be lack of proper health habits”.7 2.2. semantic method 2.2.1. synonym for example, “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”,“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . and “mad” is replaced by “crazy”, “insane”, and “lunatic”. such euphemism

33、aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term. 2.2.2. negation such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning, and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. we could call stupid peo

34、ple unwise people. “a fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words” 2.2.3. vague words and expressions that is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. for example, if somebody has some mental problems, we can express it like this: his roof leaks a little; he h

35、as a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. there are other examples which use vague expressions, such as diseasetrouble, problem; to come acros s an unfortunate thingto have an accident; v. d. (venereal disease) secret disease; to live together illegallyto cohabit; intrauterine devicering; to rape

36、 somebodyto do violence to somebody; prostitutea woman of the streets, a woman of a certain class, a painted woman, a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company; whorehousehouse; a squintan obliquity of vision; a man of bad tastea man of doubtful taste; strikeindustrial a

37、ction; the poorthe underprivileged, the disadvantaged; in debtin difficulties; buttocksbehind, bottom, backsides; homosexualqueer; sexual intercourseintimacy; to be killedto be put to sleep. 2.2.4. loan words because from the period of renaissance, latin, greek, and french are considered as cultured

38、 words8. people consider that those languages are more elegant, tactful and ambiguous. in the early 19th century, no matter in britain or america, people used french word “enceinte” instead of english word “pregnant”. it is popular till now because the former is more elegant, tactful and ambiguous.

39、english borrows words not only from french but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. for example, “lavatory” was borrowed from latin word “lavatorium”, but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. therefore, people borrowed another euphemis

40、m from french “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”, and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. french words “chemise” and “lingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from japanese “”. its original meaning is a kind of japanes

41、e food. people put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”, which means “tongue kissing”. the above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. in addition, euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold, clinic and antiseptic. such words are mainly f

42、rom latin and greek. for example, latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words, while latin word “defecation” and greek word “urination” are all accepted easily. 2.2.5. understatement that is to state some serious things in a temperate way in orde

43、r to avoid being awkward and strident9 . for example, “she was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “my cousin jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “soft in the head” means “mad”; “the boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabili

44、tation home in the country.” (steal, detention home); the period of economic depressiona period of economic adjustment; money for briberykickback, commission; poor familieslow income families; falling behindless advanced; retarded childrenless able children; an ugly girla plain or homely girl; disab

45、ledphysically handicapped; to be illto look off color, to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatmenthealth care; old ageadvanced in age. 2.3. the variety of pronunciation and spelling form english is an alphabetic writing. the variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain de

46、gree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) acronym: da (drug addict), kg (know gambler), b.o.t (balance of time), j.d (juvenile delinquent), p and q (peace and quiet). 3) back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire), homo (homosexual), gents (

47、gentlemens room), and ladies (ladies room)10. there is an interesting example: “laboratory”, the original stress was on the first syllable. but it sounded similarly to “lavatory”. in order to avoid the unpleasant connection, the stress was moved to the second syllable. such phenomenon is called asso

48、nance. that is to make use of or to create words, which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. therefore, in english there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: the captain is at home. it is because “captain” is asso

49、nant with the medical science term “catamenia”. in oral english, “pee” is used to refer to “piss”, which has the same reason. 2.4. grammar that is to use past tense, negative sentence to express euphemism. for example, i can see by your face that you dont think that was wise. the negative form means

50、 “thinking that was foolish”; “how do we feel today?” using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “i wanted to” “i wondered” often take the place of “i want to” “i wonder” such expression is often used in oral english.11 3 the social influences of euphemism euphemism is widely us

51、ed in america and britain. it has a long history. new euphemisms emerge in an endless stream. according to its applied functions, id like to divide it into three parts: avoidance, courtesy and disguise. through studying the three functions, we can understand the western societys view on value and mo

52、rality. 3.1. avoidance the earliest subject of euphemism is religious12. the conception of taboo is deep-rooted in peoples mind, and it is not easy to remove. the appearance of taboo could date back to ancient greek and ancient roman. in humans eyes god owns a super power that could control everythi

53、ng. because fearing of the secret power, people use euphemism to avoid mentioning the guilty, unpleasant, rude or offensive words, which plays a role of purifying languages. for example, european americans avoid speaking “friday” and “13”. when the two things appear in the same day, it is an ill ome

54、n. and there is an example: there appeared an episode in 1972 when president nicoson visited china. chinese premier zhou went to shanghai to receive american visitors. he found that mr. and mrs. nicoson were arranged to live in room15, kissinger in room14, but some state councilors in room13? the we

55、stern people often take number 13 as a taboo. after entering their apartments, premier zhou was aware that these western visitors seemed unhappy. so he explained:” it is a pity that we have made a serious mistake. we ignored the special western culture.” he continued,” there was an old chinese fable

56、 that when a man was afraid of ghost, the more he thought, the more he felt terrified. at the time he felt no fear, he began to look for the ghost, but the ghost disappearednumber 13 in western culture looked like the chinese ghost.” hearing his story, the american visitors laughed heartily. at last

57、 they cooled down. from this example, we can realize the necessity of the cultural infiltration in language communication. so we must pay attention to the social influence of euphemism. this avoidance function is the first communication function of euphemisms13. such function is often used in the fo

58、llowing situations: 3.1.1. the euphemisms for god and devil the ten commandments of bible has prescribed, “thou shalt not take the name of the lord thy god in vain; for the lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” thats why there are so many euphemisms. in ora l english, using “god” causally would be considered blasphmous. if someone say “god damni it” he is treason and heresy, and would be punished 14 . some of them adopt the semantic method, such as the creator, the maker, the supreme (being), holy one, the almighty, the eternal, our