phonology.ppt

1、LINGUISTICS,Objectives,Phonology Phonology and phonetics Phone, phoneme, allophone Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minima pair Some rules in phonology Supra-segmental features,Tasks,Phonology Summary Assignment,Lead-in,1: How many stages does the speech chain consist of? What acti

2、vities are involved in the speech chain? 2: revision exercises (1-7),Homework check,Phonology,Definition -the study about how speech sound in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phonology and phonetics Phonetics is defined as the stud

3、y of the phonic medium of language. It is of a general nature. Phonology is the studies of the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in human language.,Phonology,Example p and ph The difference between these two sounds is what phonetics is interested in. Phonologically speaking, the two soun

4、ds are regarded to be two versions of the same one basic entity and therefore tjey are fundamentally the same.,Phonetics and Phonology,Both deal with speech sounds Phonetics: deals with physical properties of speech sounds Phonology: deals with the organization of speech sounds in a particular langu

5、age Which sounds are predictable? Which are unpredictable? What context allows us to predict the occurrence of certain sounds? Which sounds affect the meaning of words?,Phone, phoneme and allophone,Phone: a phonetic unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce are all phones. (音素) 由于不同的音素是从肺中压出的气流在通过

6、口腔的不同形状和舌头的不同位置时用送气的不同方法形成的，鉴定音素的性质时，就必须考虑发音的方式和发音的位置。由于英语的字母数量有限，语音学便制定了一套专门的标音符号来标定语音或音位，如 音素、/ 音位、等等。,Phone, phoneme and allophone,Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. （音位） / Allophone: the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted for a

7、nother without bringing about a change of meaning. 音位变体 For example: /p/ ph,The distinctive sounds of human languages are very limited in number, varying from 11 to 64. English has about 52 phonemes (20vowels, 24 consonants, and 8 diphthongs). Not all phonemes are utilized in the same way. 9 most fr

8、equently occurring phonemes comprise almost 51 % of all sounds in English. They are n, t, r, s, d, I, i, e, ae.,Phone, phoneme and allophone,Phone: a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phoneme: a phonological unit of distin

9、ct value. It is an abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.,E.g., The /t/ sounds in mitt, Tim, metal, mitten corresponds to one phoneme. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. E.g: /t/

10、 - t Allophones (p. 24): One of a set of non-distinctive realizations of the same phoneme. Corresponds to something physical produced by a speaker E.g., th is an allophone of /t/.,Phonemic contrast(语音对立原则) Complementary distribution(互补分布原则) Minimal pair(最小对立体),Principles used for distinguish or assi

11、milate phonemes,Principles used for distinguish or assimilate phonemes,For phonetically similar sounds, if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. Eg. /p/ and /b/ in pit bit When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, the

12、y are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s). Example: Let play tell,Minimal Pairs W

13、hen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. 最小对立体 (minimal pair) 当两个或两个以上意义不等的语音组合 (即语言单位) 仅仅在一个语音上显示出差异时，这两个或两个以上的语音组合便构成最小对立体。,Principles used for distingu

14、ish or assimilate phonemes,Example tip : dip； sip : zip； pat : bat : mat a. 彼此的语音数量相等 b. 彼此的意义不同 c. 彼此仅存在一个语音的差异 d. 语音差异出现在同一位置上,Principles used for distinguish or assimilate phonemes,Principles used for distinguish or assimilate phonemes,dip disk 违反 a 规律 tap taph 违反 b 规律 bit bad 违反 c 规律 fat tap 违反

15、d 规律,Principles used for distinguish or assimilate phonemes,Summary morphologically： tip : dip phonetically： t d Design features：-VOICE +VOICE,Sequential rules 序列原则 Assimilation rule 同化原则 Deletion rule 省略原则,Some rules in phonology,Sequential rules: sound-patterning rules that govern the combination

16、of sounds in a particular language, which phoneme can begin a word, end a word and follow each other. Assimilation rules: rules that govern how one sound is assimilated to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, making the two phones similar. Deletion rules: tell when an orthographic

17、ally represented sound is to be deleted in pronunciation. E.g. g in design, paradigm,Some rules in phonology,Sequential Constraints All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. Speakers know that the phonemes of their language cannot be strung together in any random order t

18、o form words. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.,Some rules in phonology,However, it is not difficult to show that speakers have knowledge of such sequential rules. For example, the four different phonemes of English of k, b, l, i c

19、an be arranged to form the English words in the following picture,Some rules in phonology,In English, these are the only permissible arrangements of these phonemes, but *lbki, *bkil, *ilkb and so on are not possible in the language. Our knowledge of English tells us that certain strings of phonemes

20、are permissible and others are not. Thus, we can see that after a consonant like b, g, k, or p, another similar consonant is not permitted by the rules of the grammar.,Some rules in phonology,If a word begins with an l or an r, every English speaker knows that the next segment must be a vowel. *lbik

21、 does not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.,Some rules in phonology,Assimilation rules When a /t/ is followed by a /b/ or a /p/, it usually changes into a /p/ sound. that person that boy light blue When a /d/ is followed by a /b

22、/ or a /p/, it usually changes into a /b/ sound. good boy good practice,Some rules in phonology,在 in-discrete 中，n 发成 n 在 in-conceivable 中，n 发成 在 in-put 中，n 发成 m think, books, dogs, looked ?,Supra-segmental features,In uttering a word, the speaker must indicate which syllable carries the stress, what

23、 kind of pitch pattern he is using, and so on. This part will discuss the following four aspects: Syllable Stress Pitch Intonation and tone,Supra-segmental features,Syllable Phonetically, the syllable consists of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively l

24、oud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound. According to Roach (1991:67), a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation, as in the following words:,Supra-segmental features,Stress Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence. In other w

25、ords, a syllable that is more prominent than the other syllables in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. In many languages, including English, some syllables within a word are relatively more prominent than others. For example, in the word message, the first syllable is more prominent than the s

26、econd. In the word massage, however, the reverse is true.,Supra-segmental features,However, no word has more than one primary stress. English syllables seem to be stressed by a combination of raised pitch and increased loudness and length. When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one of t

27、he syllables receives greater stress than all others. Only one of the vowels in a phrase or sentence receives primary stress. All the other stressed vowels are reduced to secondary stress. According to Clark and Yallop (1990:287), patterns of stress are highly important in a language such as English

28、.,Supra-segmental features,Pitch Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound. In many languages, some syllables or vowels are produced with a change in pitch

29、, more loudly, and longer than other vowels in the word or sentence. They are referred to as stressed. Pitch patterns are essentially either steady, rising or falling . Linguistically, different languages use pitch differently,Supra-segmental features,Falling pitch is more common in language than ri

30、sing pitch. Thus, linguists use the term declination（下倾） for what appears to be an almost universal tendency in language, namely a moderate progressive fall in pitch from the beginning to the end of any sequence of speech of appreciable length. There are of course constraints and exceptions. For exa

31、mple, the speaker selects a rising pitch pattern to signal that the utterance is a query. (1) Johns going to tonights party. () (2) Johns going to tonights party? (),Supra-segmental features,Intonation and Tone（语调和声调） Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger

32、than the syllable. By means of intonation, syllables are grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences. In English a phrase usually has one or two different terminations. The most common phrasal intonation ends on a falling pitch; the other ends on a more or less level pitch. For instance, in the

33、 expression This is a picture, it ends with a falling pitch. As noted by Sloat et al (1978:76-78), intonation serves several functions in verbal communication. Grouping of Words Emphasizing Words Differentiating Meanings,Supra-segmental features,First, intonation contours may indicate the possible g

34、roupings of words in phrases, resulting in different meanings of these phrases. In the following two phrases, the first one means a boys school that is small, while the second means a school for small boys.,Supra-segmental features,Intonation may also serve to emphasize a certain word within a phras

35、e or sentence. The first of the following sentences has a neutral intonation contour. The second has higher pitch on one word than would normally be expected. That word therefore takes on special importance in the sentence. Thus, the second sentence means John only kissed Mary. He did not do anythin

36、g else to her,Supra-segmental features,Furthermore, in English, the same sentence may mean quite different things when spoken with different intonations. For the most part declarative sentences terminate with a falling pitch and questions requiring a yes or no answer terminate on a rising pitch. Exc

37、lamations are often characterized by a high pitch throughout. The following sentences illustrate these different intonations. 1. John is coming to the party tonight. (Im informing you.) 2. John is coming to the party tonight? (I didnt know),Supra-segmental features,Tone refers to pitch variations. I

38、n some languages, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches. The function of tone is quite different from that of stress. Tones do not mark the beginning and ending of words, nor do they even indicate to the speaker how many words there are in

39、 an utterance. Languages that use pitch in this way are called tone languages,Supra-segmental features,Supra-segmental features,Supra-segmental features,Discuss how to translate it into English ?,Supra-segmental features,(Once upon a time,) there was a poetic scholar whose name is Mr. Shi, who took delight in lion. He vowed to eat 10 lions. He frequently traveled to towns to see whether there were lions. One day, at 10 oclock, 10 lions happened to travel to the town. At the same moment, Mr. Shi arrived at the town too. Mr. Shi saw these 10 lions and killed them by casting ten stones. He