胡壮麟语言学课件chapter12(名牌大学教授整理).ppt

Chapter 12,1,Chapter 12,Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics,Chapter 12,2,In Europe,In USA,Birth of Modern Linguistics 1907 1916,Prague School 1926 ,London School 1944 ,American Structuralism 1911 ,Bloomfield Era 1933 1950,Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 1950 ,TG Grammar 1957 ,Case Grammar 1968 ,Chapter 12,3,Birth of Modern Linguistics,When is the beginning of modern linguistics? We date modern linguistics from the early twentieth century when scholars worked out detailed scientific methods for establishing relationships among languages. This is marked by the publication of Ferdinand de Saussures book Course in General Linguistics (1916).,Chapter 12,4,Birth of Modern Linguistics,During the years between 1907 to 1911, Saussure lectured on general linguistics in the University of Geneva. After he died in 1913, two of his students, C. Bally and A. Sechehaye, collected lecture notes from students and put them together to produce the great work, Course in General Linguistics, in 1916.,Chapter 12,5,Birth of Modern Linguistics,This book became the most important source of Saussures ideas and of his influence upon succeeding generations of linguists. Saussures ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.,Chapter 12,6,Birth of Modern Linguistics,Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics? (1) The book “Course in General Linguistics” (1916), which is the most important source of Saussures ideas, marked the beginning of modern linguistics.,Chapter 12,7,Birth of Modern Linguistics,(2) Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language which direct our attention to essentials of language and make clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. He believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS, called conventions. He held this sign is the union of a form and an idea, which he called the signifier (能指) and the signified (所指).,Chapter 12,8,索绪尔指出，语言符号是概念和音响形象的结合。然而，在日常生活使用中，语言符号这个术语一般只指音响形象，结果让部分要素包含了符号整体。为了避免出现这种混淆，索氏称： “我们建议保留用符号这一词表示整体，用所指和能指分别代替概念和音响形象。”,Chapter 12,9,索绪尔认为，任何语言符号是由“能指”和“所指”构成的，“能指”指语言的声音形象，“所指”指语言所反映的事物的概念。符号的任意性就是说，所指与能指的联系是任意的，两者之间没有任何内在的、自然的联系。,Chapter 12,10,Birth of Modern Linguistics,(3) Saussures ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of LANGUE and PAROLE and of SYNCHRONIC and DIACHRONIC linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.,Chapter 12,11,concept thought（思维）or reference（关联意义） wordthing symbol（符号） referent（所指） or form（形式）,Birth of Modern Linguistics,Chapter 12,12,The Prague School,The Prague School (Circle of Linguistics of Prague) can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of V. Mathesius (1882 - 1946) in 1926. Activists in the Prague School included R. Jakobson (1896 - 1982) and N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938).,Chapter 12,13,The Prague School,This school practised a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of FUNCTION. It has been an extremely important source of influence in linguistics, as has been stated that “No other European group has wielded quite as much influence as this one“, and it “has influenced every important development in the United States“ (Bolinger, 1968).,Chapter 12,14,The Prague School,Of the many ideas developed in Prague School, three points are of special importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.,Chapter 12,15,第一、强调语言的共时研究，因为共时研究可以从完整、可控制的语言材料中抽取素材，但也没有严格从理论上将之与历时语言研究分隔开； 第二、强调语言的系统性这一本质属性，指出语言系统中的任何成分，如果从孤立的观点去研究，都不会得到正确的分析和评价，只有明确该成分与同一语言中其它共存成分之间的关系，才能做出正确评价。,Chapter 12,16,第三、布拉格学派在另一种意义上把语言看作功能，即语言是使用语言的社团完成一系列基本功能和任务的工具。,Chapter 12,17,The Prague School,1. Phonology and phonological oppositions The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. The most influential scholar in this connection is Trubetzkoy, whose most complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principles of Phonology published in 1939. Following Saussures distinction between langue and parole, he argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue.,Chapter 12,18,The Prague School,1. Phonology and phonological oppositions（音位对立） On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme“ as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.,Chapter 12,19,The Prague School,1. Phonology and phonological oppositions In classifying distinctive features, he proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; (2) relations between the opposing elements; and (3) their power of discrimination.,Chapter 12,20,特鲁别茨科伊在给区别性的语音特征进行分类时，提出了三条标准： 1.它们与整个具有对立性质的系统之间的关系； 2. 对立成分之间的关系； 3. 区别力的大小。,Chapter 12,21,The Prague School,1. Phonology and phonological oppositions Trubetzkoy s contributions to phonological theory concern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.,Chapter 12,22,特鲁别茨科伊的贡献：,1.他指出语音的区别性功能并给音位做出了准确的定义； 2. 通过区分语音和音位以及文体音位学和音位学，界定了音位学研究的范围； 3. 通过研究音位间的组合关系与聚合关系，他揭示了音位间互相依赖的关系； 4. 他提出了一整套用于音位研究的方法，如确定音位的方法和研究音位组合的方法。,Chapter 12,23,The Prague School,2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.,Chapter 12,24,Syntactic functions grammatically: subject, predicate, object, adverbial, etc. object adverbial I gave a book to him. subject predicate,Chapter 12,25,Syntactic functions logically: agent, patient, beneficiary, instrument I gave a book to him. instrument,Chapter 12,26,Syntactic functions psychologically: theme（主位） rheme（述位） (known information) (new information) I gave a book to him.,Chapter 12,27,To the question “How are you getting along”, the response might be like the following. I am reading a book. The book tells a story. The story is a about a dog. The dog is loyal to his master. His master took him out one day. That day it was not only snowy but also windy. The wind and snow were very heavy. ,Chapter 12,28,We can see that each of the above sentences begins with known information and then ends with new information. This way of expression of our thoughts is concordant with our thought patterns. It is psychologically the right way to express our mind. The part that gives the known information is called theme and the other part that gives the new information rheme. The theme is the psychological subject of a sentence. The rheme shows the function of the speech (to convey information).,Chapter 12,29,FSP句子功能前景是语言学分析的理论，指用所含信息来分析话语或篇章，其基本原则是评价话语中的每一个部分对全句意义的贡献。 他们认为一个句子总是包含有出发点和话语目标，所谓话语的出发点，是说话人和听话人都知道的东西这是他们的共同点，叫做主位。而话语的目标，仅仅表现对听话人来说意义重大的信息，叫述位。 他们认为从概念的出发点到话语的目标的运动，揭示了大脑本身的活动。语言使用不同的句法结构，但是表达思想的次序基本相同。,Chapter 12,30,grammatical subject Last night the mouse was caught by the cat. theme rheme logical psychological subject subject known information new information,Chapter 12,31,The London School,The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first Professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain (1944). The majority of university teachers of linguistics in Britain were trained under Firth and their work reflected Firths ideas. Hence, the name “London School“ is quite appropriate for the distinctively British approach to the subject.,Chapter 12,32,The London School,Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski (1884 - 1942). In turn, he influenced his student, the well-known linguist M.A.K. Halliday. The three men all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.,Chapter 12,33,他们三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。,Chapter 12,34,The London School,1. Malinowskis theories Malinowski was Professor of Anthropology (人类学) at the London School of Economics from 1927 onwards. The most important aspect of his theorizing, concerned the functioning of language. He said that language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought“. According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.,Chapter 12,35,The London School,1. Malinowskis theories Malinowski believed that utterances and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. There is no way to characterize the meaning of utterances on the basis of internal considerations about the language alone. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation.,Chapter 12,36,The London School,1. Malinowskis theories He said that in order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study the situations in which it is used. Meaning is not something that exits in sounds, but something that exists in the relations of sounds and their environment. Malinowskis concepts of “linguistic environment“ and “meaning as functions in the CONTEXT OF SITUATION provided useful background for further development of linguistics carried out by Firth.,Chapter 12,37,The London School,2. Firths theories Firth developed Saussures and Malinowskis theories and put forward his own original points of view. Firth regarded language as a social process. He held that language is a means of doing things. Firth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies: because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and language is an important part of them, linguistics can help reveal the social nature of human beings.,Chapter 12,38,弗斯把语言看作是社会过程，是社会生活的一种手段。他认为语言本身是一种做事的手段，也是一种使他人做事的手段，是一种行动和生活的手段。 弗斯试图把语言研究和社会学研究结合起来；因为人与文化价值是不能分离的，语言是文化价值非常重要的一部分，所以语言学可以帮助人们揭示人类的社会本质。,Chapter 12,39,The London School,2. Firths theories Firths own study focused on the context of situation. He defined it as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment. Firths second important contribution to linguistics is his method of PROSODIC ANALYSIS (韵律分析法), called prosodic phonology（韵律音位学）.,Chapter 12,40,弗斯把情景语境作为研究的重点。他对情景语境的定义包括整个话语的文化背景和参与者的个人历史，而不仅仅是人类活动当时进行的具体环境。 语言语境和情景语境,Chapter 12,41,The London School,3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar M. A. K. Halliday (1925-) has developed the ideas stemming from Firths theories in the London School. His Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.,Chapter 12,42,韩礼德的系统功能语法是从社会学角度出发用功能方法研究语言，是20世纪最有影响的语言学理论之一。 系统功能语法包括两部分：系统语法和功能语法。系统语法旨在解释作为系统网络的语言中的内在关系，或意义潜事；功能语法试图揭示语言是社会交往的一种手段，其理论基础是语言系统与组成该系统的形式是由它们的使用者承担的功能决定的。,Chapter 12,43,The London School,3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar SF Grammar has two components: S GRAMMAR and F GRAMMAR. S grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. It consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. F grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably（不可避免地）determined by the uses or functions which they serve.,Chapter 12,44,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar A system is a list of things between which it is possible to choose. Axis of Choice Axis of Chain,Chapter 12,45,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar Axis of Choice Axis of Chain singular male first number gender person second plural female third,Chapter 12,46,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar intention (目的) process action process Material process supervention (意外) process (John kicked the ball.) event process Behavioral process (John laughed.) perception(识别)process internalized process reaction process Transitivity Mental process cognition process （及物性）(John loves Mary.) externalized process Verbal process (John said it was cold in the room.) Relational process (John is in the bed.) Existential process (There is a cat on the sofa.),Chapter 12,47,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar In this view, we can regard language as a multi-level code system, in which one sub-system is embedded in another. For example, MEANING SEMANTICS is coded by (SYNTAX) WORDING LEXICOGRAMMAR which is coded by SOUND ( or WRITING) PHONOLOGY,Chapter 12,48,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar In systemic grammar, the relations of realization are represented by an arrow. The system in systemic grammar chiefly describes three components of functions, or three metafunctions, the ideational (概念), the interpersonal (人际) and the textual (语篇).,Chapter 12,49,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar material behavioral mental ideational verbal relational existential offer functions interpersonal command statement question textual,Chapter 12,50,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar material process: to do something e.g. My brother built all these houses. (actor, process, goal) He broke the window. The window was broken by him. (goal, process, actor) He ran away. (actor, process) He cancelled the meeting.,Chapter 12,51,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar Mental process: to show perception, reaction and cognition e.g. He saw the north star. (sensor, process, phenomenon) She doesnt like the milk. Relational process: to show the relationship between things e.g. Carlos is a poet. (identifier, identified) The film lasted two hours. The piano is Peters.,Chapter 12,52,The London School,Systemic-functional grammar Behavioral process: a physical activity e.g. She laughed heartifully. (behaver, process, circumstantial环境成分) verbal process: to exchange information e.g. My watch says its 9:00. (sayer) existential process: to exist e.g. Theres a pen on the desk. (existent),Chapter 12,53,The London School,3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar SF grammar is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction; and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomskys TG Grammar that takes the ideal speakers linguistic competence as the object of study.,Chapter 12,54,American Structuralism,American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style, from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas (1858 - 1942), whose tradition has actually influenced the whole of the 20th-century American linguistics.,Chapter 12,55,American Structuralism,1. Early period: Boas and Sapir Specialized in the anthropology of North America, Boas worked as organizer of a survey of the many indigenous（本土的） languages of America north of Mexico. The result of the survey was the book Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911). Boas trained the men who investigated other languages. For decades, all the great names of American linguists learned their subject from Boas at first or second hand.,Chapter 12,56,American Structuralism,1. Early period: Boas and Sapir Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. Boas was strongly opposed to the view that language is the soul of a race, and he proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. Thus, there were only differences in language structure, while there is no difference between languages in terms of being more or less reasonable or advanced.,Chapter 12,57,American Structuralism,2. Bloomfields theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is L. Bloomfield (1887 - 1949). He is such a landmark figure in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as Bloomfieldian Era, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.,Chapter 12,58,American Structuralism,2. Bloomfields theory Bloomfields Language (19