白勇语法笔记整理1.doc

白勇语法笔记整理：GMAT语法考试总论GMAT语法的最高原则：最有效的表达原句所陈述的合理意思及合理重心。withdraw from 从。撤出句子结构句子结构、1、句子组成：核心部分（主语核心词+谓语）+可抛弃部分（定语/定从、状语/状从、同位语和独立成分/插入语）。阅读句子时，可先抛弃可抛弃部分，把握其基本结构和核心意思。2、GMAT考试以主从句和并列句为主，并从语意上考查句子内部的逻辑关心，尤其是不同的逻辑关系不能相互颠倒、混淆或随意改变。3、不完整句子结构：缺主句，缺主语，缺谓语。what 从句不能缺少谓语4.、标点符号：1）逗号不连接两个或三个句子，修改方法：A 用分号；B 用连词and; C 用逗号和连词；D 将一个句子变成短语或变成另一个句子的从句。2）主语，插入成分，谓语 3） 冒号后可以使用：一个句子、句子并列、词或短语并列。4）破折号可以引出：作补充说明的句子或短语、同位语、插入语、列举的事物。5、副词不能替代连词：then、also、therefore、however等副词在使用时都应该加上and！（do A and then do B; doing A and then doing B; suspect sb. of having done A and then of doing B) 第二节 名词性从句（主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句）主语从句It be + adj.(likely, possible, evident, surprising, true) / -ed分词(estimated, expected, predicted, anticipated, required, proved, found, feared, assumed, admitted, noted, supposed, reported, suggested, decided, noticed) +thatIt + seem/happen/ appear+ that.It be + 名词词组（good news to sb. , a fearful disappointment to sb.,) + that.只能使用陈述语序带有主语从句的复合句中，主语从句作为一个整体，视为单数，谓语动词用第三人称单数主语从句可以并列3、习惯搭配：It may well (很可能) be that; It may be that.二、宾语从句（动词型宾语从句、介词型宾语从句）1、动词型宾语从句引导词that一般不能省略，省略算作性对性错误。2、介词后一般只能接疑问词引导的宾语从句，不可以接that引导的宾语从句。但有三个例外：but that、except that(=but that)、in that(=because)属于约定俗成的表示。3、宾语从句后面有补语的情况下，通常用形式宾语it来代替。Eg：make it clear that4、陈述语序三、表语从句1. 两类：be+that / be+疑问词1、主语主句是reason时，表语从句要用that 引导，不可用because. reasons作主语时，表语要用名词短语并列(the most common reasons for.are 名词短语1，名词短语2 and 名词短语32、陈述语序（what is in question is whether an improvement in nutrition was the main reason for the decline of infectious diseases before the late nineteenth century.）第三节 特殊结构强调结构It is/was not untilthat(直到。才。)If any做插入成分，强调名词短语，意为“如果有的话”Many+noun,if not most,verbEg: many minority people, if not most, would agree with her.4、asas,if not more so, Eg: The use of chemical pesticides in this country is as extensive as it was ten years ago, if not more so.二、1. So/such.that 中so短语和such短语位于句首时，主句需要部分倒装。2.否定词或短语位于句首时，引起部分倒装：never; no longer; rarely; hardly; few; little; not until3.全倒装结构：介词短语/-ing分词短语/-ed分词短语/形容词短语+be动词+主语（主语与前面的be动词主谓一致）三、as结构1、as作介词：表示:作为，以. 1) n.+as+n. 2) v. +as +n.(宾语补语） :v.(accept, classify, define, describe, know, name, refer to, regard, speak of, state, take, think, view） 3) v. +as +n.（方式状语) 2、as做连词：（1）表示时间，“一就”，“随着” （2）表示原因 （3）表示“像”（GMAT中这种考得最多）： 三种句型结构：(just) as +主句；(just) as ,so+主句； (just) as , so too+主句（要部分倒装）偶尔作代词：指代简单句子。Eg：Indirect socialization also occurs, as when television shows or films reinforce stereotyped images of woman and men.in as much as:既然；由于，因为in so far as:在的范围内三、同位语结构1. 同位结构起修饰语的作用，一般用于修饰名词或者名词短语2. 同位语位置：名词前或名词后，一般在修饰对象的后面1、同位语结构中名词的数可以与其修饰对象的数不一致。2、形式：1）名词性同位语，名词解释名词：n. ,n.; n., a/an +n. 或a/ an+n., n. ; the +n. +n. 2）抽象名词( theory/ evidence/ belief/ principle) + that 从句， that 从句对抽象名词进行具体化解释。 注意：具体化同位结构（表示整体含义） 与of 结构(表示所属关系）的区别2) 用一个概括性名词去概括前面的解释对象：短语/句子，a program/information/an effort/ a practice that.( 必须能“概括”，逻辑意思要符合生活事理和科技常识）3）n. , n. (重复所修饰的名词）+that 定从4) n. , one/ ones +that 定从五独立主格结构 1. 独立主格结构在句首或句尾， 表伴随原因，条件，状态等 2. 一般独立主格：n.+ n. ; n. +-ed/ -ing； n. +介词短语； n.+形容词短语 3. With型独立主格：with+ n. + -ed/ -ing; with+n. +adj. ; with+n. +介词短语 4. Each 型独立主格：句子+复数名词结尾, each +介词短语/形容词短语/ -ed/ -ing四、省略结构1、省略结构要能够还原，且还原后语法上要求结构对应，逻辑关系正确。2、两个句子并列，第一个句子中含有be/become，第二个句子的be/become必须省略。 E.g. Once the economic and social usefulness of the motor car was demonstrated and its superiority to the horse proved,. (proved前省略了was)Be 动词或者being 常倾向于省略: Be known as being sth. （省去being); n. , being sth. （省去being )3、习惯性省略：as needed; as planned; as required; as scheduled; whenever necessary/needed/possible than ever/before/ever before/usual/expected/predicted/estimated/anticipated Consider sth.+n./adj. ; prove(省略to be)+adj.省略相同的主语、宾语、连系动词、助动词、情态动词： Have done.and done.; will do .and do.; must/ would/ should/ can/ could/ may do.and do. 五、否定结构 1、表示否定意义的短语：cannot .too; in the absence of ; no morethan(与一样不.)；no amount of(怎么也不)eg: .No amount of washing will remove these stains.无论怎样也不会洗掉这些污迹补充： believe 的习惯搭配：believe +that ; believe sth. To be; believe sth. (错误:believe sth. That.) So too 后面必须加句子（使用倒装结构） 名词的否定形式： not A, but B; not A, but rather B; A, rather than B; A, not B One.another; each.the other; each other ; some.others. Permit sb. To do sth. （permit that从句永远错） 并列句的省略：实意动词不省略 Hopefully 在口语中表示：充满希望的；人们希望的。在书面语中为保证意思单一性，一般不使用hopefully Except that +主谓结构 Also是副词，不起连词的作用 However much表达强烈的语气 Responsible 的正确用法: be responsible for sth. ; be responsible for doing sth. ; be responsible to sb. (be responsible to do 永远错） It 不能指代：介词短语；前面整个句子 it 可以向后指代：主语从句；不定式短语 Propose: sth.(物）propose +that (that从句不使用虚拟）； Sb. (人）propose+that（that必须使用虚拟语气）； Propose sb. To do (不能使用被动）； Propose doing sth. ; propose sth. Commission：委员会，（是人） Doubt：doubt 用肯定形式，可以由whether 或that引导宾语从句，如doubt whether./doubt that.; doubt 用否定形式，只能由that引导宾语从句，如do not doubt that. 动词sell可以用主动的形式表示被动的含义，如sth. Sell well. 但当表示什么东西卖多少钱时必须用被动语态sth. Be sold for 介词with 后面不跟完整主谓语 标准书面语中，无生命事物的所有格形式优先使用n. Of n. 结构，较少使用nouns.这一结构 With +n. +as +adj. (with meat as rare) 不能作为独立主格结构，因为as作为介词后面不能加形容词，应加名词 并列句主语相同，应该省略重复的主语。 Have looked and seem：seen前省略助动词have Whether or not表达不简洁，必须省略or not 表达“关于.”优先使用介词about/over, 不倾向于使用concerning/with respect to 定冠词the应放在more than+数词+名词前面，不能放在more than后面 “比预期”的表达方式：than expected; than sb. Expected; than sb. Had expected. Than expected/ than predicted/ than estimated 例题： 5. While some propose to combat widespread illegal copying of computer programs by attempting to change peoples attitudes toward pirating, others by suggesting reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by calling for the prosecution of those who copy software illegally. E. Suggest reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others are callingA 中， while., others and others.缺主句例题14. The proposed health care bill would increase government regulation of health insurance, establishing standards that would guarantee wider access to people with past health problems and to workers who are changing jobs and otherwise could be uncovered for months. Workers who are changing jobs and otherwise could be uncovered for months. Are changing 和could be uncovered 并列，共同作定语从句的谓语动词。例题20. Many writers of modern English have acquired careless habits that damage the clarity of their prose, but they can break these habits if they are willing to take the necessary trouble. A. But these habits can be broken (错。因为if条件从句中的代词they 应优先指代主句主语habits. )例题21. Dozens of New Yorks small museums are devoted to local history or various ethnic groups, and there are also many one-of-a-kind museums from Manhattan to the Bronx that are open for exploration on summer weekends. C. Dozens of New Yorks small museums are devoted to local history or various ethnic groups, but there are Small museums与big museums是相反概念，one-of-a-kind museums 与 one-of-all-kinds museums也构成相反概念。 则dozens of New Yorks small museums 与many one-of-a-kind museums不是相反概念，则不能用转折连词but 连接例题26. The current administration, worried about the removal of some foreign trade barriers and the failure of our exports to increase as a result of deep cuts in the value of the dollar, has formed a group to study ways to sharpen our competitiveness.例题33. Judge Lois Forers study asks why some litigants have a preferred status over others in the use of a public resource, the courts, which in theory are available to all but in fact are unequally distributed between rich and poor. In the use of 在。方面; the courts 作为a public resource的同位语；ask的宾语从句使用陈述语序主谓一致定语从句中的主谓一致：名词1of名词2+that，先用逻辑关系判断出that引导的定语从句修饰名词1还是名词2，再根据名词1或名词2来判定动词的单复数形式(only/but)one of+n.pl+that+v.(复数)定从修饰复数名词，谓语动词用复数。the (only) one of +n.pl+that+v.(单数)定从修饰the (only) one，谓语动词用单数。二、倒装结构中的主谓一致：1、在there be A and B 句型中，由靠近be 动词的A决定be 动词的数的形式1.在完全倒装中，谓语动词的形式有谓语动词后民的主语的形式决定。2、在部分倒装中，主语前面的助动词的形式有该主语的形式决定。三、主语从句作主语时的主谓一致：一般谓语动词用单数，但what、who引导的主语从句含有复数意义时，谓语动词可以用复数形式。四、主谓一致的一般规则：1. 复数名词/复数代词+each+v,谓语动词用复数1、each of/one of/( one in/one out of:意为分之一) + n.pl + v.单数 every n.pl + v.复数 Two/three.in/out of+复数名词作主语，谓语动词用复数形式2. 物质名词（如equipment, stone, citrus, iron, milk, dioxin)作主语，谓语动词用单数2、 数词+单位词复数+of+不可数n. + v.复数 e.g. From 1050 to 1350, several million tons of stone were.3、 以-s结尾的疾病、国家名称、机构名称用作单数作主语时，谓语动词用单数3、“no+n.”作主语，谓语动词形式由该名词的单复数形式决定。4、a body of/ a collection of / a series of/ a set of/ a portion of/ a group of +n.pl，谓语动词用单数1. Part of/ most of/ all of/ some of/ 分数或百分数of/ the rest of +n. 作主语时，谓语动词的数的形式由of后的名词决定5、 a total of / an average of +n.pl，谓语动词用复数； the average of +复数n. 谓语动词用单数6、 不定式短语或-ing分词短语作主语，谓语动词用单数补充： 1) make sth. Sth. ; make sth.+adj. ; make it +adj. +to do.2) 在英语中三个类似的词表转折：while, whereas, where,三者的区别在于：where只能放在句首作状语表示转折含义（where，+主句），不能放在主句后面的从句前面（主句，+where.)因为where 可能作定语；while 和whereas可放句首，也可放主句后面的从句前面3) Estimated at后常用价格等数量词，除此以外的概念优先用estimated to be4) Descend(v.) from.; a descendant(n.) of.5) 定语从句的习惯搭配：the period when.; a time when./at a time when.;the year that. The way in which.; the way+句子； the way+to do An age in which. ;the next time+句子；phenomenon in which.6) 将原句的when时间状语从句改为if条件状语从句，必然改变原句的意思7) 关系代词充当介词宾语时，应将介词提前，构成介词+which型定语从句（e.g. The collateral against which farmers borrow to .)8) Sth. Were as disturbing to his own time as they are compelling for ours 有明显的标志(be动词were和are)表示不同时态下的比较9) Information是不可数名词，all of the information加单数10) 介词+ones doing错，介词后必须直接加doing.或名词短语11) 状语从句的省略形式： 省略形式：表示转折、时间、条件的连接词+形容词短语/分词短语 （while performing ) 错误形式：表示转折、时间、条件的连接词+介词短语/名词短语 特殊情况：whatever和once可以加名词短语，表示状语从句省略12) More修饰数量多少，older修饰岁数大小（三十岁或三十岁以上：aged thirty or older; 三十和三十岁以上：aged thirty and over)13) 几分之几：one.in four ; one.out of four 14) Power 是抽象名词，device是具体名词，both the power and the devices平行结构概念不对等15) Capability of doing/ capability to do 16) Confidence in sth. /that; confident about sth. 17) Sth. Lead sb. To do ; lead to 不用于被动 18) 双重所有格n./pron. +of +n.s 在标准书面语中不能接受例题9. Some analysts contend that true capitalism exists only when the ownership of both property and the means of production is regarded as an individuals inalienable right, not as a license granted by government and revoke at whim. 主语核心词是the ownership；be regarded as +n./adj./-ing形式例题10. Although it has not been proved that the consumption of any particular food will reverse hardening of the arteries, studies indicate that refraining from eating certain foods can help reverse blockage of coronary arteries, the blood vessels that feed the heart. It has been proved that.it作形式主语指代后面的that从句。例题16. Out of Americas fascination with all things antique has grown a market for bygone styles of furniture and fixtures that is bringing back the chaise lounge, the overstuffed sofa, and the claw-footed bathtub. 全倒装结构，动词后面的名词为主语。定语从句的is 保证定语从句只能跳跃修饰单数名词a market. 市场把chaise lounge等老式家具带回来。例题34. A recent national study of the public schools shows that there is now one microcomputer for every thirty-two pupils, four times as many as there were four years ago. 研究表明的是一个统计数据，统计数据的描述用there be句型更符合逻辑。As well as前后必须具有可比性。不同时态的动作比较，there is 表示现在，there were表示过去，比较对象形式对称例题36. In the most common procedure for harvesting forage crops such as alfalfa, as much as 20 percent of the leaf and small-stem material, the most nutritious parts of the plant, shatters and falls to the ground. In the most common procedure决定主句用一般现在时。As much as决定主语为单数，核心词是物质名词material,表示单数。Leaf 和small-stem两个并列的名词作定语共同修饰名词material.同位语的单复数可以与其解释对象不一致。动词形式时态时态的呼应：主句谓语动词为现在时或将来时，从句谓语动词可根据逻辑含义选用任何时态。主句谓语动词为过去时，从句谓语动词用过去的某种时态。将来时：条件状语从句、时间状语从句、方式状语从句、让步状语从句中用一般现在/过去时代替一般/过去将来时。possibility that./likelihood that.中，that从句用一般将来时。语态使用被动语态的动作执行者一般是by表示，不能用according to不用被动语态的动词和动词短语：lead, cause, enable, become, receive, visit, lack, enter, cost, possess, resemble, last, like, enjoy, notice, watch, look at, listen to, pay attention to, suit, fit, contain, so as to do, be able to do, be likely to do.主动表示被动含义：read like; read well; prove helpful; sell well(但是sth. be sold for+价格); be the most difficult to do中的to do; too+adj.+to do; be worth doing; require doing.既可以主动，也可以被动：Change; close; determine; end; finish; head; interest; issue; open; trainSth. Be aimed at doing sth. Sb. Aim to do sth. Sth. Be intended to do sth. Sb. Intend to do sth. Sth. Be targeted at sth. Sb. Target sth. 语气虚拟语气的表达1、虚拟语气if条件句主句与现在事实相反过去时（be一律用were）should（第一人称）/would(第二、三人称)/could/might +动词原形与过去事实相反had+过去分词should（第一人称）/would(第二、三人称)/could/might +have+过去分词与将来事实相反should+动词原形should（第一人称）/would(第二、三人称)/could/might +动词原形2. without+名词/代词，可表达虚拟条件。二、后置主语从主中的虚拟语气it is important/ natural/ essential/ imperative(必要的，极重要的)/ necessary/ vital/ advisable/ obligatory/ best/ incredible/ ironic/ preferable/ appropriate + that+动词原形。三、动词后的宾语从句用虚拟：1）表建议：advacate/advise/move/ recommend thatdo.; sb. Suggest/ propose that.do2) 表命令：order/ decree/ mandate/ command/ demand3）表要求：request/ require/ insist that; sth. Require of sb. Thatdo下列动词后的宾语从句不用虚拟：Allow that; rule that;.sth. propose that.; sth. Suggest that三、语气的强弱：所选答案要保持原句语气的强弱，不能随意改变。eg：only if & if; however much &much; should & If; be not unlike& like; if & on condition that; any+n. & n.; just like &like; 不能相互替换。情态 情态动词（由强到弱：must=will have to-would-should-can-could-may=might）的省略或添加：原句有情态动词时，一般不省略。当使用情态动词导致前后重复，情态动词必须省去。E.g. the possiblity that .might do省去might.情态动词不可随意改变或添加。补充：1. 数量的多余和少于用more than 和less than2. originally决定它所修饰的动词用一般过去时3. within/ during/ over/ in+ the past/ last/ recent +时间短语:用现在完成时4. enough to 表示主观满足，很少用于书面语; so/ suchthat. 不用考虑逻辑主语问题; so/suchas to 用于单一主谓结构，逻辑主语等于句子主语，即句子主要可以执行as to后动作所表达的动作5. is to be doing用be supposed to do 或一般将来时代替6. some other +复数名词7. 密度density 的大小应该用great 形容8. 条件从句和when 时间状语从句不能使用将来时态9. eating sth. 永远对，Eating of sth.永远错10. prove常常以主动形式表被动的含义，如I prove innocent（我被别人证明是无辜的）；但是加入反身代词后，表示自己证明自己，如I prove myself innocent（我自己证明自己是无辜的）11. use sth. To do; help (to) do12. prohibit sb. From doing.; prohit sb. To do/that永远错13. soas只用于否定句中：not so great as14. be liable to do; be liable to(介词) sth.; be liable for (介词) sth. 15. be able/unable to do是be 动词短语，在这个短语中be动词不是助动词，不能省略16. require of sb. To do错17. require (of sb.) that从句（使用动词原形）； require sb. To do; sth. Be required of sb. 18. sth. Be grounds for doing.19. mandate sb. To do; mandate that.用虚拟例题10. founded in 1983, the magazine has since more than doubled its circulation, and its advertising.例题14. although the Supreme Court ruled as long ago as 1880 that Blacks could not be excluded outright from jury service, nearly a century of case-by-case adjudication has been necessary to develop and enforce the principle that all juries must be drawn from “a fair cross section of the community.”主语中a century of表示持续时间例题18. several senior officials spoke to the press on condition that they not be named in the story. On condition that 可以用虚拟例题20. a study commissioned by the Department of Agriculture showed that if calves exercise and associate with other calves, they require less medication and gain weight more quickly than those raised in confinement. Those 前面省略do，因为主句中出现两个并列的动词，避免争议例题33. according to United States Air Force officials, a cannon that shoots dead chickens at airplanes has proved helpful in demonstrating what kind of damage can result when jets fly into a flock of large birds. 例题35. in the late seventh century, in a dispue over whether the Prophet Muhammads son-in-law, Ali, should carry on as the fourth caliph, Muhammads successor, Islam split into two branches, the Sunnis and the Shiites. 情态动词不能随意省略，添加或者替换例题38. despite protests from some waste-disposal companies, state health officials have ordered that the levels of bacteria in seawater at popular beaches be measured and the result published. And之后省略了that, published 前省略了be例题43. one of Ronald Reagans first acts as President was to rescind President Carters directive prohibiting the sale to other countries of any chemical banned on medical grounds in the United StatesDirective作为名词，表示禁令，其后的that从句是同位语，解释说明，不用虚拟语气。 Direct作为动词，表示命令，其后的宾语从句用虚拟。Prohibit that从句，永远错。The sale of sth. To somewhere, sth. 太长，所以放在somewhere后面，变成the sale to somewhere of sth.分词和不定式分词1、现在分词的句法功能：做主语、宾语、定语、状语、补语（eg: find/keep/have/make +n. +现在分词）过去分词的句法功能：做定语、状语、补语2.分词短语逻辑主语的判断： （1）分词短语位于句首，起状语作用，逻辑主语是句子的主语。 （2）分词位于句尾：现在分词：作结果状语，逻辑主语是前面的句子。 作伴随状语，逻辑主语是其修饰成分的逻辑主语，但不一定是句子的主语。 过去分词：一般优先就近作定语，修饰名词。3、分词做后置定语与定语从句的区别：（1）分词做后置定语强调逻辑上的修饰关系，后者作为前者的动作具有客观性、多次性和重复性，无明确的时间概念。定语从句作定语强调动作的一次性和具体时间下的具体行为。（2）有情态动词的定语从句不能转换为分词，如果使用分词会产生歧义（作定语还是作状语），则应改用定语从句来消除歧义。4、后接现在分词作宾语的动词或动词短语： acknowledge/ escape/ assure/ advocate/ favor/ risk/ involve/propose(建议)/admit/ favor/recommend/ resisit/ include credit to/ in contrast to/ be suppose to/ object to/ be opposed to/ amount to/ be exposed to/ be limited to/ lead to/ be educated to/ be accustomed to/ be used to aid ab. in doing/ be busy doing/ have difficulty/trouble (in) doing/ prevent; keep; prohibit; save sb. From doing/ accuse sb. Of doing/ be expert at/ criticize.for./ praise.for/ be capable of/ 不定式不定式在句中所做成分：主语、宾语、表语(be+不定式，常用主语有：aim; task; effect; activity; mistake)、定语、状语、补语。+不定式作宾语，不定式动作与谓语动词