【英语论文】正确对待英语歧义现象（英文） .doc

to treat ambiguity properly正确对待英语歧义现象刘杰伟abstract: ambiguity is an inevitable language phenomenon that arouses current interest of many linguists. the present paper attempts to make a tentative analysis of ambiguity which is subdivided into phonological/phonetic ambiguity, lexical/semantic ambiguity, structural/grammatical ambiguity and pragmatic ambiguity based on its different causes. to treat ambiguity properly, the author points out that ambiguity is both a problem to avoid and an award to make use of. thus several possible means to disambiguate are suggested, mainly attributed to achievements in the study of context. meanwhile, the application of ambiguity is introduced in various domains to display its positive functions. then a natural conclusion is arrived at that we shall treat ambiguity dialectically and properly.key words: ambiguity; causes; context; disambiguate; application 摘要：歧义作为一种普遍存在的语言现象，已经受到语言研究者的日渐关注。本文利用前人在句法、语义和语用平面所取得的研究成果，试对这一语言现象进行研究分析。为更好认识歧义、对待歧义，作者在简介歧义的定义和分类后，从语音、语义、语法、语用四个方面分析英语歧义现象的成因；在此基础上，针对歧义现象的消极作用总结消除歧义的可能方法，并针对其积极作用指出歧义现象在各个领域中的利用。进而作者得出本文的结论，要辩证地看待歧义现象，对其消极作用尽量避免，而积极作用则加以利用。关键词：歧义；成因；语境；消除；利用1. introductionlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. it might be regarded imprecise concerning the ubiquity of ambiguity, which inevitably arises mainly out of the intrinsic arbitrariness and conventionality of language, as well as contextual factors. ever since the philosopher charles morris (1938) introduces the trichotomy of syntax, semantics and pragmatics, language study has been advancing on the three levels mentioned above. in this paper, we attempt to exert our best efforts to analyze ambiguity from four aspects, namely phonology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics. 1.1. definition of ambiguityambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning in a given context. an ambiguous expression can be potentially understood in two or more ways. as geoffrey n. leech puts it, ambiguity is the case of “more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language.” (1969)1.2. classification of ambiguityvarious criteria are found to classify ambiguity.based on different causes of ambiguity, it can be classified into phonological/phonetic ambiguity, lexical/semantic ambiguity, structural/grammatical ambiguity, and pragmatic ambiguity. while the former three are regarded from a static point of view as linguistic ambiguity, the latter one, as extra-linguistic ambiguity, falls within the perspective of dynamic level. we can also divide ambiguity into deliberate/intentional ambiguity and non-deliberate/unintentional ambiguity, when the communicators intentions and the effect thus occurred are taken into consideration as main factors.2. causes of ambiguity to treat ambiguity properly, we are supposed to analyze firstly the possible causes of different types of ambiguity. the most popular classification is employed in the following analysis, i.e. phonological/phonetic ambiguity, lexical/semantic ambiguity, structural/grammatical ambiguity, and pragmatic ambiguity. 2.1. phonological/phonetic ambiguityphonological ambiguity generally occurs in spoken language, where the utterance is conveyed and received by different breath-groups rather than syllable by syllable or word by word. therefore, phonological ambiguity is frequently caused by factors as follows:2.1.1. assimilationassimilation, a process by which neighboring sounds influenced each other, often occurs across syllable or word boundaries, especially in quick speech. the “theory of least effort” suggests that man in speech tends to exert as little effort as possible, as a result of which assimilation or co-articulation takes place frequently because our places of articulation usually vary as little as possible to save effort.therefore, grade a and grey day have the same pronunciation in oral english; and she is a nice girl is not necessarily a compliment as the addresser may be saying she is an ice girl. and a wisecrack runs as follows:a fishermans business makes him sell fish (selfish). the addressee may be confused as to the certain connection between a fishermans business and his character, especially if the stress and rhythm of sell fish are not distinctively uttered.2.1.2. homophoneshomophones, one type of partial homonyms, are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. english as a phonograph is particularly rich in homophones, for example, bear, bare; son, sun; principal, principle; ensure, insure; dear, deer, etc.“mine is a long and a sad tale!” said the mouse, turning to alice and sighing.“its a long tail, certainly,” said alice, looking down with wonder at the mouses tail; “but why do you call it sad?” (lewis carrol: alices adventure in wonderland)“tale” and “tail” are homophones that are pronounced the same way, so alice and the mouse in the story unavoidably get each other wrong during their conversation.2.2. lexical/semantic ambiguitylexical ambiguity arises when context is insufficient to determine the sense of a single word that has more than one possible meaning. due to the arbitrary relationship between sign and referent, multiple meaning seems to be universal in language, which is an essential feature of a languages economy and efficiency. actually the main cause of lexical ambiguity is multiple word meaning including polysemy, perfect homonymy, homographs, and transferred meaning. in a broader sense, these aspects mentioned are to a certain extent resulted in by semantic development or change. multiple meaning is particularly common in the lexicon of english because of its varied history.2.2.1. polysemy david crystal defines polysemy as “a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of meanings.” (1980) an expression that has developed more than one meaning is a polysemy. just a shuffle of any dictionary will tell us how popular polysemy is in english and other languages. when two or more meanings of a polysemy are simultaneously rational in a given context, there can be lexical ambiguity. for instance,she cannot bear children so she never talks about them.the given context doesnt inform us whether she cannot tolerate children or she has lost the ability of reproduction. the addressee has to demand more details to clarify the fact.2.2.2. perfect homonymswhile homophones can lead to phonological ambiguity, the other two types of homonyms, that is, perfect homonyms and homographs, are potential causes of lexical ambiguity. he gave her a ring last night.we cannot decide whether ring means “telephone call” or “small circular band of precious metalworn especially on the finger.” ring by the two senses is not regarded as the same word but as two words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning. when an expression has the same form as another but a different meaning, the two are perfect homonyms which partly induce lexical ambiguity.2.2.3. homographsanother type of partial homonyms, known as homographs, also causes lexical ambiguity. this kind of lexical ambiguity occurs in writing only because homographs, although identical in spelling, have different sounds and meanings.there is a sewer behind the old house.“sewer” only in writing is ambiguous. in speech, a /su (r)/ is the one who sews, and a /sju:(r)/ is an “underground pipe or passage that carries sewage away to be treated or purified.”2.2.4. transferred meaningsemantic development may result from the figurative use of language. word meaning inclines to transfer metaphorically from its original meaning. when a word in the existing context can be comprehended in both its literal meaning and its transferred meaning, lexical ambiguity arises.jack saw the light.we can imagine light as concrete entity that can be received by eyesight. but other than the literal meaning, see the light may also be viewed as a whole implicating “understand or accept something after much difficulty or doubt”. see the light has undergone the process of fossilization and already become a fixed expression or an idiom during the frequent collocation in daily use. semantic development has metaphorically taken place here. 2.3. structural/grammatical ambiguitystructural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase, i.e. a phrase or sentence is said to be structurally ambiguous when it has more than one underlying structure. to quote john lyons, structural ambiguity may exist in “any sentence to which there is assigned more than one structural analysis at the grammatical level of analysis.” (1977) possible factors leading to structural ambiguity are as follows:2.3.1. attachmentboth co-ordinate attachment and prepositional attachment can cause structural ambiguity. an “english history teacher” may be either an (english history) teacher or an english (history teacher). “peas and beans or carrots” can be understood in two ways: peas and (beans or carrots), or (peas and beans) or carrots.the girl hit the boy with a book.we may wonder which of the two held the book, the girl or the boy.2.3.2. coordination there exist two types of coordination: segregatory coordination and combinatory coordination.he painted the boxes black and white.some boxes were painted black and some white if “black and white” is a segregatory coordination. otherwise as combinatory coordination, all boxes were painted both in black and white.2.3.3. ellipsisellipsis is the omission of one or more words in a sentence, which would be needed to complete the grammatical construction or fully to express the sense. ellipsis leaves something to be comprehended by the readers. ambiguity is found in elliptical sentences where missing item is not clear.i like bill more than mary.the sentence can be interpreted as either “i like bill more than mary does” or “i like bill more than i like mary”.2.3.4. negativesemantic government of negatives can differ in the same sentence, thus occurs ambiguity.he didnt come to see me.we might assume that he didnt come at all, or he came, but not for the purpose of seeing me.no work will kill him.it indicates either “he can bear any work, however hard it is”, or “he feels terrible if he has no work to do”.2.3.5. word class and syntactic relation we saw her duck.“duck” as a noun acts with its modifier “her” as the object of the sentence. as a verb, however, “duck” means “to lower ones head quickly”, and thus becomes the complement of the object.ambiguity may still exist when words have a fixed class in its context.the love of god“god” may be the subject of “love”, meaning “the love given by god”, or the object of love, meaning “the love for god”.2.4. pragmatic ambiguitypragmatic ambiguity arises when the addresser in a given context conveys to the addressee more than one illocutionary acts or forces synchronically with an uncertain, vague or indirect expression. the addressers words themselves are unambiguous, but the meaning is not uniquely determinable.pragmatic ambiguity doesnt take place because of misunderstanding on linguistic context, namely phonological, semantic or syntactic factors, but because of the extra-linguistic context at variant, which is understood to cover the identities of participants, the temporal and spatial parameters of the speech event, and the beliefs, knowledge and intentions of the participants in that speech event, and no doubt much besides. (stephen c. levinson, 1983)natural language expressions, in spite of a stable and simple semantic core, often have a set of conversational implicatures. to put it another way, people tend to mean more than what they literally said. any failure, deliberate or not, to filter out the context-specific communicative intention, enlarges the gap between what is said and what is intended. it is in this sense that pragmatic ambiguity is universally found in daily life. the occurrence of pragmatic ambiguity heavily relies on context of situation rather than intrinsic factors of language.judge: guilty! ill give you ten days or twenty dollars.prisoner: ill take the twenty dollars, judge.the greedy prisoner overlooked the restricting context and in favor of himself mistook the judges meaning.people of different cultures are highly vulnerable to pragmatic ambiguity, for their mutual manifestness is comparatively much lower.take the diversities between british and american english for instance, even charles dickens, the renowned author and language master, was once embarrassed when he announced in a lecture in the us, “i can see many homely faces here.” in britain, “homely” is a complimentary word, while americans explain it as “ugly; not attractive or good-looking”.stereotype is another ready example. people of different nations, even individuals of the same nations tend to form stereotypes for the same subject due to their diversified background. we were stupefied by english-speakers utterance “you are a lucky dog”, for “dog” in chinese is a word with negative shades of meaning.3. how to treat ambiguity properly3.1. ambiguity is a problemambiguity, usually an unintentional one, may pose obstructions for mutual understanding and communication. whats worse, intimate relationship between people even countries may be spoiled.“to table something” has almost opposite meanings in british and american english. the british say it to imply “to submit (a motion or report in parliament, etc) for discussion”; while in american english, it means “to leave (a proposal etc) to be discussed at some future date”. thats the reason why the representatives from great britain and those from the us nearly split apart on a post-war conference over the formers suggestion to “table a motion”.ambiguity, which induces false conclusion, binds peoples ability to disclose bad arguments that are deliberately concealed. a politicians announcement that “i oppose taxes which hinder economic growth” may win him support from many people, some of whom think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth, while some others think he only opposed those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth. both sides believe the politician is on their side.ambiguity stands as one of the handicaps for non-native english learners and mounts a big headache hard to overcome for translators.a: “what kind of money do girls like the most?”b: “matrimony”.it remains a problem to translate similar expressions without losing the original flavor. and the translators are well reasonable to shift the burden of blame to ambiguity. its even worse for some english beginners unable to appreciate the humor and wisdom of this text.ambiguity is one reason why computers cannot yet understand natural language well enough. presently no searching engine is able to do a perfect job in sorting out information needed.in consideration of these problems and more, william empson ever warned that ambiguity is the enemy we have to watch out. 3.2. possible means to disambiguateto avoid the negative effect of ambiguity in communication, we have concluded some possible means to disambiguate on basis of the causes of ambiguity already discussed above. who started the trouble shall end it, and it is a return to context that forwards the best means to disambiguate.3.2.1. disambiguate through contextualization context plays the most vital role in determination of word meaning. the meaning of words may be viewed as determined both by linguistic/verbal contexts (co-context) and extra-linguistic/non-verbal contexts (context of situation).although ambiguity can be deemed ubiquitous as a property of linguistic expressions, not much ambiguity or confusion is created in daily communication. it shall attribute mostly to the influence of context, which runs towards two opposite directions, i.e. context can cause ambiguity to come into being, and it is by turning to context that ambiguity may be eliminated.3.2.1.1 disambiguate by means of rhythmspeech uses natural rhythm of language to disambiguate. words, phrases and sentences all have specific pauses, stresses and intonation to emphasize different meanings.writing can use punctuation to disambiguate.he decided to put on no dress (,) which would distinguish him from others.a longer pause between “dress” and “which” in speech or adding of a comma in writing there would turn the meaning in another way.stress is helpful in avoiding ambiguity.“french teacher” when read in primary-tertiary stress means “a teacher teaching french”. a change into second-primary stress would alter the meaning as “a teacher from france”. 3.2.1.2. disambiguate by means of adding modifierswhere are those tables? (where are those stables?)other than a pause of longer duration between the last two words, the meaning can be clarified by adding modifiers.where are those wooden tables? (where are those stables for racing horses?)john spilled the beans.when john spilled the beans all over the table, spill the beans has its literal meaning. but if john spilled the beans all over the town, then he must have revealed a secret.3.2.1.3. disambiguate by means of ic analysisa phrase or sentence not only has a linear structure, but also a hierarchical structure, i.e. layers of words or phrases that can be revealed by ic analysis. ic analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituentsword groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. it is the process of segmenting a complex construction by successive single cuts.the following example shows