《国际商务谈判》罗伊列维奇原版课件,第五章 PPT.ppt

1、CHAPTER 5 Perception, Cognition, and Emotion,The Titles,Perception Framing Cognitive Biases in Negotiation Managing Misperceptions and Cognitive Biases in Negotiation Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation Chapter Summary,1. Perception,Perception Defined Perception is the process by which individuals connec

2、t to their environment. The process of ascribing meaning to message and events is strongly influenced by the perceivers current state of mind, role, and comprehension of earlier communications. Perception Distortion In a given negotiation, the perceivers own needs, desires, motivation, and personal

3、experiences may create a predisposition about the other party. This causes for concern when it leads to biases and errors in perception and subsequent communications.,The Perceptual Process,Figure 5.1 Perception is a “sense-making ” process; people interpret their environment so that they can respon

4、d appropriate,Perception,Stimulus,Recognition,Translation,Behavior,Attention,Perception Distortion -1,Stereotyping. It occurs when one individual assigns attributions to another solely on the basis of the others membership in a particular social or demographic category. Halo Effects. It occurs when

5、people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.,Perception Distortion -2,Selective Perception. It occurs when the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief and filters out information that does not c

6、onfirm that belief. Projection. It occurs when people assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves. It usually arises out of a need to protect to ones own self-conceptto see oneself as consistent and good.,2. Framing,A frame is the subjective mechanism through which

7、people evaluate and make sense out of situation, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions. The popularity of framing has come with the recognition that often two or more people who are involved in the same situation or in a complex problem see it or define it in different ways. Frames are

8、critical in negotiation for several reasons. Understanding framing helps negotiators evaluate the process, and better controlling it.,2.1 Types of Frames,(1) Substantivewhat the conflict about. (2) Outcomea partys predisposition to achieving a specific result or outcome. (3) Aspirationa predispositi

9、on toward satisfying a broader set of interest or needs. (4) Process how the parties will go about resolving their dispute. (5) Identify how the parties define “who they are”. (6) Characterizationhow the parties define the other parties. (7) Loss-gainhow the parties define the risk or reward,2.2 How

10、 Frames Work in Negotiation,Negotiators can use more than one frame. Mismatches in frames between parties are sources of conflict. Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements. Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues. Parties are likely to assum

11、e a particular frame because of various factors.,2.3 Another Approach to Frames: Interests, Right, and Power,Parties have a choice about how they approach a negotiation in terms of interests, rights, and power, the same negotiation can be framed in different ways and will likely lead to different co

12、nsequences. The example of a student who has a dispute with a local car repair shop shows that different frames are very likely to lead different discussions.,2.4 The Frame of an Issue Changes as Negotiation Evolves,At least four factors can affect how the conversation is shaped: (1) Negotiators ten

13、d to argue for stock issues, or concerns that are raised every time the parties negotiate. (2) Each party attempts to make the best possible case for his or her preferred position or perceptive. (3) Frames may define major shifts and transitions in a complex overall negotiation. (4) Multiple agenda

14、items operate to shape issue development.,2.5 Summary,We can offer the following prescriptive advices about problem framing for the negotiator: Frame shape what the parties define as the key issues and how they talk about them. Both parties have frames. Frames are controllable, at least to some degr

15、ee. Conversations change and transform frames in ways negotiators may not be able to predict but may be able to control. Certain frames are more likely than others to lead to certain types of processes and outcomes.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -1,Irrational Escalation of Commitment. It is an

16、tendency for an individual to make decisions that stick with a failing course of action. Escalation of Commitment is due in part to biases in individual perception and judgment. One way to combat these tendencies is to have an advisor to serve as a reality checkpoint. Mythical Fixed-Pie Belief. The

17、tendency to see negotiation in fixed-pie terms varies depending on how people view the nature of a given conflict situation. It can also be diminished by holding negotiators accountable for the way the negotiate.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -2,Anchoring and Adjustment The choice of an anchor

18、might well be based on faulty or incomplete information and thus be misleading in and of itself. Through preparation, along with the use of devils advocate or reality check, can help prevent errors . Issue Framing and Risk. The way an issue is framed influences how negotiators perceive risk and beha

19、ve in relation to it. The tendency to either seek or avoid risk may be based on the reference point against which offers and concessions are judged.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -3,Availability of Information. Negotiators must also be concerned with the potential bias caused by the availabilit

20、y of information or how easy information is to retrieve. The availability of information also affects negotiation through the use of established search patterns. The Winners Curse . The winners curse refers to the tendency of negotiators to settle quickly on a item and then subsequently feel discoun

21、t about a negotiation win that comes too easily. The best remedy for winners curse is to prevent it from occurring.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -4,Overconfidence. It is the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true. It has

22、 a double-edged effect. It appears that negotiators have a tendency to be overconfident about their own abilities and that this overconfident affects a wide variety of perceptions and behaviors. The Law of Small Numbers . It applies to the way negotiators learn and extrapolate from their own experie

23、nce. Example of “hot hand ” fallacy.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -5,Self-Serving Biases Fundamental Attribution Error . The effects of self-serving biases. Self-serving biases have recently been shown to influence perceptions of fairness in a negotiation context. Perceptual error may also be

24、expressed in the form of biases or distortions in the evaluation of data.,3. Cognitive Biases in Negotiation -6,Endowment Effect. It is the tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess. In negotiation, the endowment effect can lead to inflated estimations of value that interfere wi

25、th reaching a good deal . Ignoring Others Cognitions . Reactive Devaluation. It is the process of devaluing the other partys concessions simply because the other party made them. Such devaluation may be based in emotionality or on distrust fostered by past experience.,4. Managing Misperceptions and

26、Cognitive Biases in Negotiation,They are typically arise out of conscious awareness as negotiators gather and process information. Box 5.4 presents a sizeable inventory of the variety of decision traps that can occur. Merely discussing how to set opening offers, aspiration levels, and bottom lines w

27、ith team members will not reduce the effects of perceptual biases. Careful discussion of the issues and preferences by both negotiators may reduce the effects of perceptual biases. Reframing.,5. Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation-1,The role of mood and emotion in negotiation has been subject of an incre

28、asing body of recent theory. The distinction between mood and emotion is based on three characteristics: specificity, intensity, and duration. Some select findings are available as following.,5. Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation-2,Negotiations Create Both Positive and Negative Emotions. Most researcher

29、s agree that emotions tend to move the parties toward some of action I their relationship, such as initiating a relationship, maintaining to fixing the relationship, or terminating the relationship. Positive Emotions Generally Have Positive Consequences For Negotiations. Positive feelings are more l

30、ikely to lead the parties toward more integrative processes. Positive feelings are also create a positive attitude toward the other side. Positive feelings promote persistence.,5. Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation-3,Aspects of the Negotiation Process Can Lead to Positive Emotions. Positive feelings may

31、 result from fair procedures during negotiation . Positive feelings may result from favorable social comparisons. Negative Emotion Generally Have Negative Consequences for Negotiators. Negative Emotions may lead parties to define the situation as competitive or distributive. Negative Emotions may undermine a negotiators ability to analyze the situation accurately. Negative Emotions may lead parties to escalate the conflict. Negative Emotions may lead parties to retaliate and may thwart integrative outcomes.,5. Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation-4,As