PeerInteractions,RelationshipsandGroups同侪互动人际关系和群体.ppt

1、Peer Interactions, Relationships and Groups,Susan Brockmeyer November 4, 2004 (Use of these slides requires the information contained in the attached notes below each slide),Overview,Defining what Peer Relationships, Interactions and Groups are the study of How each changes from infancy through adol

2、escence Other influencing factors to consider Development of Social Skills Development of Social Competence Parenting Influences,What is the Study of Peer Interactions the Study of?,Interactions- the interweaving of behaviors of two individuals into a social exchange of some duration An interaction

3、often occurs between two people who are of influence to one another Researchers are focused on the origins and consequences of: moving toward others moving against others moving away from others Children vary behavioral interactions depending on several things,What is the Study of Peer Relationships

4、 the Study of?,Relationships- a succession of interactions between two individuals known to each other, who have a history of interaction In childrens peer relationships the type of relationship most commonly studied is the dyadic friendship. Since these individuals are known to each other the natur

5、e and course of each interaction are influenced by: the history of past interactions their expectations for interactions in the future,Relationships Have More Than One Facet,The degree of closeness of a relationship is determined by: the frequency and strength of influence the diversity of influence

6、 across different behaviors the length of time the relationship has endured How do we define social interactions as a relationship? By the predominant emotions associated with them: affection love attachment level of commitment (Hinde, 1979),What is the study of Peer Groups the study of?,Groups- a c

7、ollection of interacting individuals who have some degree of reciprocal influence over one another (Hinde, 1979). Group Properties: Cohesiveness Hierarchy Heterogeneity Norms,How do Peer Interactions, Relationships and Groups Develop over the Lifespan?,What Changes? Interactions- changes in the freq

8、uency or forms of specific behaviors Relationships- changes in the qualities of friendships or patterns of involvement in friendships Groups- changes in the configurations of and involvement in cliques and crowds,What Do These Look Like in Infancy and Toddlerhood?,Interactions - most infant interact

9、ions are diffuse and fragmented. However they do exhibit signs of interactions with peers. Toddlers are more able to engage in social exchanges due to vocalization and locomotion. Play becomes organized around particular themes or games. Relationships - Toddlers seem to be more likely to initiate pl

10、ay with familiar peers (Howes, 1988) Groups - group interaction is probably not salient to or influential on very young children.,What Develops in Early Childhood?,Interactions - peer interaction increases and becomes more complex. Relationships - children do express preferences for some peers over

11、others as playmates. They often direct positive social behaviors to these friends and have more quarrels with them than with non-friends. Groups - research on preschool playgroups has focused on the importance of dominance in determining rank within the group.,What develops in Middle Childhood and P

12、readolescence?,Interactions - the proportion of time spent in social interaction increases and the peer group size usually increases. Relationships - Children go through a stage where shared values and rules become important and friends are expected to stick up for and be loyal to one another. Group

13、s - participation in cliques develops (Crockett, Losoff, & Peterson, 1984). Other organizational features include the popularity hierarchy. Children start to appreciate their own and others popularity. Evaluations are made in relation to others.,What Develops in Adolescence?,Interactions - less adul

14、t guidance and a continued trend toward increased time spent with peers Relationships - friendship includes the acceptance of autonomy and independence, also the understanding that individuals need to develop relationships with other third parties also. Groups - a general loosening of “clique” assoc

15、iations. Integration of the sexes in group composition. Emergence of crowds (B. Brown, 1990),Conclusions As to the Nature of Childrens Peer Experiences Changing With Age,Attributed to four factors: Intrapersonal changes- growth in interpersonal understanding and concern Interpersonal changes- change

16、s in the frequency or form of specific behaviors Dyadic relationships- changes in qualities of friendships or patterns of involvement in friendship Group changes - changes in configurations of and involvement in cliques and crowds,A Consideration of other Influencing Factors,Social Skills- discrete

17、behaviors that lead children to solve social tasks or achieve social success Examples of Social Skills: (a) understand the thoughts, emotions and intentions of others (b) abstract information about the social partner and the setting in which the interaction is to take place (c) generate various mean

18、s by which to strike up a conversation or interaction, to maintain it and to end it positively (d) understand consequences of ones social actions for the self as well as for the other (e) make mature moral judgments that serve to guide social actions (f) behave positively and altruistically,More Inf

19、luencing Factors,Social Competence- several definitions exist. Just to name a few: “an organisms capacity to interact effectively with its environment” (White, 1959) “an individuals everyday effectiveness in dealing with his environment” (Zigler, 1073) “attainment of relevant social goals in specifi

20、ed social contexts, using appropriate means and resulting in positive developmental outcomes” (Ford, 1982) The ability “to make use of environmental and personal resources to achieve a good developmental outcome” (Waters & Sroufe, 1983),The Role of Parents,The parental role serves three basic functi

21、ons: The interactions between parent and child help develop the competencies necessary for social interaction The parent-child relationship creates a place where the child can explore/test social interactions safely thereby developing social skills Expectations and assumptions about interactions and

22、 relationships are formed,Internal Working Models and Development of Social Skills,The secure base relationship fosters (Elicker, Englund, & Sroufe, 1992): Positive Social Expectations Reciprocity Sense of self-worth and self-efficacy Secure vs. Insecure Attachment and Influences on Social Developme

23、nt,Parenting,Parents can also influence the development of social behaviors through Providing peer contact opportunities Monitoring peer encounters Coaching child to deal competently with interpersonal tasks Disciplining unacceptable, maladaptive behaviors,Conclusions,Interactions are the braiding o

24、f behaviors of two individuals into a social exchange of some duration. This becomes more complex over time with a trend toward independence and greater time spent with peers. Relationships form from successive interactions between two individuals known to each other. They increase in intimacy and s

25、elf disclosure with time. In addition, they facilitate the growth of self-identities. Groups are a collection of individuals who have some degree of reciprocal influence over one another. They move from cliques to crowds, which involve both sexes and are defined by primary attitudes and activities o

26、f their members.,Conclusions,The formation of healthy development is contingent upon the successful attainment of positive social skills and good social competence The building blocks to the formation of positive social interactions rests, in part, in the parenting we receive and our relationship wi

27、th our primary caregiver,References,Baudonniere, P., Garcia-Werebe, M., Michel, J., & Liegois, J. (1989). Development of communicative competencies in early childhood: A model and results. In B. H. Schnieder, G. Attili, J.Nadel, & R.P. Weissberg (Eds.), Social competence in developmental perspective

28、 (pp. 175-193). Boston: Kluwer Academic. Bretherton, I., & Waters, E. (Eds). (1985). Growing points in attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(Serial No. 209). Brown, B.B. (1990). Peer groups and peer cultures. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott

29、(Eds.). At the threshold (pp. 171-196). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brownell, C. (1990). Peer social skills in toddlers: Competencies and constraints illustrated by same-age and mixed-age interaction. Child Development, 61, 838-848. Buhrmester, D. (1996). Need fulfillment, interpersonal

30、 competence, and the developmental contexts of friendship. In The company they keep: Friendship during childhood and adolescence (pp. 158-185). New York: Cambridge University Press. Cohn, D. A. (1990). Child-mother attachment of six-year-olds and social competence at school. Child Development, 61, 1

31、52-162. Crockett, L., Losoff, M. & Peterson, A. C. (1984). Perceptions of the peer group and friendship in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 4, 155-181. Eckerman, C. O. (1979). The human infant in social interaction. In R. Cairns (Ed.). The analysis of social interactions: Methods, is

32、sues, and illustrations (pp. 163-178). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Eckerman, C. O. (1993). Imitation and toddlers achievement of co-ordinated action with others. In J. Nadel & L. Camaioni (Eds). New perspectives in early communicative development (pp. 116-156). New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Elicker,

33、 J., Englund, M., & Sroufe, L. A. (1992). Predicting peer competence and peer relationships in childhood from early parent-child relationships. In R. Parke & G Ladd (Eds.). Family-peer relationships: Modes of linkage (pp. 77-106). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.,References,Ford, M. E. (1982). Social cogniti

34、on and social competence in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 18, 323-340. Goldman, B.D. & Ross, H. S. (1978). Social skills in action: An analysis of early peer games. In J. Glick & K. A. Clarke-Stewart (Eds.). Studies in social and cognitive development: Vol 1. The development of social under

35、standing. New York: Gardner Press. Hay, D. F., Pedersen, J., & Nash, A., (1982). Dyadic interaction in the first year of life. In K. H. Rubin & H. S. Ross (Eds.). Peer relationships and social skills in childhood (pp. 11-40). New York: Springer-Verlag. Hay, D. F. & Ross, H. (1982). The social nature

36、 of early conflict. Child Development, 53, 105-113. Hinde, R. A. (1979). Towards understanding relationships. London: Academic Press. HOwes, C. (1988). Peer interaction of young children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 53(No. 217). Ladd, G. W., & Golter, B. S. (1988). P

37、arents initiation and monitoring of childrens peer contacts: Predictive of childrens peer relations in nonschool and school settings? Developmental Psychology, 24, 109-117. Markovits, H., & Strayer, F. F. (1982). Towards an applied social ethology: A case study of social skills among blind children.

38、 In K. H. Rubin & H. S. Ross (Eds.). Peer relationships and social skills in childhood (pp. 301-322). New York: Springer-Verlag. Mueller, E., & Brenner, J. (1977). The origins of social skills and interaction among playgroup toddlers. Child Development, 48, 854-861.,References,Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243-269. Rheingold, H. L., Hay, D., & West, M. J. (1976). Sharing in the secon