精心整理全套英语专业语言学课程课件,期末考试必备语言学Chapter 2_sound概要1

1、Chapter Two Speech Sounds,Phonetics Study of Speech Sound Phonology,Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perce

2、ptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.,Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages, more specifically is to study the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It aim

3、s to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Take an individual language, say English, as an example, to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then compare

4、 the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.,1. How speech sounds are made,1.1 Speech organs (vocal organs),T

5、hree Cavities of Vocal Tract,Sounds made with different parts of the tongue: Coronal (tip and blade): /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, / Dorsal (front and back): /k/, /g/, / Radical (root): /h/,Position of the vocal folds: voiceless,Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial (a closure) they may narrow the sp

6、ace considerably; (narrowing) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.,Stop (or Plosive) (6 sounds in English) Nasal (3 sounds in English) Fricative (9 sounds in English) (Median) Approximant (3 in English) Lateral (Approximant) Trill Tap or Flap Affricate,Stop or Plo

7、sive (oral stop),Complete closure of articulators is involved so tat the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. Three phases: The closing phase The hold or compression phase The release phase (plosion) In English: p, b, t, d, k, g,Fricative,A fricative is produced when there is close approximati

8、on (a narrowing) of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. In English there are 9 fricatives: /, /, /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /, /, /h/.,Nasal ( nasal stop),If the soft palate is down, and then the air has to go through and is stopped in the nasal

9、 cavity, the sound produced is called nasal stop. (Nasal) In English there are three nasal sounds /m/, /n/ / .,Approximant,An approximant is produced when one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. The gap

10、 between the articulators is therefore larger than a narrowing when a fricative is produced and no turbulence is generated. In English there are 3 approximants: /j/ /w/ and /r/.,Lateral,The obstruction of airstream is at a point along the centre of the oral tract, with the incomplete closure between

11、 one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. As the lateral passage forms a stricture of open approximation, it is called “lateral”. Lateral fricative the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs.

12、 short), and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).,We can now describe the English vowels in this way: high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel,3. From phonetics to phonology,Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal o

13、rgans do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb.,3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription,When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process

14、 coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.,The fact that the vowel in lamb has some qualit

15、y of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol , as .,p is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as ph, whereas

16、the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.,When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms

17、 in square brackets .,3.2 Phonemes,Tea vs. Too Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.,Crystal: Phonological analysis relies on the principle that

18、certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs test pig - big /p/ - /b/ pig big,Minimal pair: Two words which are different in meaning and identical in form except for one sound segment are referred to as a minimal pair. Minimal set: If th

19、ere are a group of, not just two, words that can be differentiated by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in a word), then this group of words are called a minimal set.,The word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast: the smallest segment of sound which can distingu

20、ish two words, that is to say, the essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. basic unit of language they are meaning distinguishing and have contrastive property. How to identify phonemes: if the substitution of one sound for another in a word results in a change in meaning

21、, then these two sounds represent two different phonemes. E.g.:,Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic, but belong to the same phoneme /p/, such as peak and speak. In Chinese, however, the distinctio

22、n between /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic, such as 拼 and 宾。,Phonemic symbols are usually phonetic symbols intended to suggest how the phoneme is most typically articulated. By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines / /while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brack

23、ets . In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions coincide with the broad transcriptions.,3.3 Phone and Allophones,/p/ p : speak : /spi:k/ ph peak : /pi:k/ Phoneme is an abstract unit or sound type in human mind. One phoneme is usually realized by different versions in actual speech (in the mouth), a

24、nd these different versions are described as “phone”. p, ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/, so they are called the allophones of the phoneme /P/. Allophones refer to the variants of a phoneme and occur in complementary distribution.,The allophones are said to be in comp

25、lementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. /p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.,Velarization: clear l and d

26、ark l / / _ V / V _ Think about tell and telling!,Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Phones satisfying the following two restrictions can fall into the same phoneme and become allophones of the phoneme: In Complementary distribution Phonetic similar

27、ity,A phoneme may also have Free Variants: e.g.: cup Free variants are not allophones of a phoneme. Free Variation: The phenomenon that the difference in the pronunciations of a phoneme may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of by any distribution rule, is called Free Variation.,The dis

28、tinction between phoneme and allophone: Substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning as well as different pronunciation, but substituting allophones only results in a different pronunciation of the same word.,4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and di

29、stinctive features,4.1 Assimilation,Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation

30、. The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.,Assimilation can occur across syllables or word boundaries, as shown by the following: pan cake sun glasses You can keep them. He can go now.,English Fricative and Affricate Dev

31、oicing,Phonological process refers to the process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in a certain environment or context. Assimilation Nasalization Devoicing Dentalization Devoicing velarization Phonological Processes,Phonological rules: /v/ f /z/ s etc. The phonolog

32、ical rule for the examples: voiced fricative (affricate) voiceless / _ voiceless Nasalization rule: -nasal +nasal / _ +nasal Dentalization rule: -dental dental / _ dental Velarization rule: -velar +velar / _ +velar,4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition,Ex: a hotel, a boy, a use,

33、a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule:,Plurals in English,a. The appears after voiceless sounds. b. The appears after voiced sounds. c. The appears after sibilants. / / voice, C _ (Devoicing) / +sibilant _ (Epen

34、thesis),Conclusion: z is the basic form since it occurs in most cases, and the other two forms are derived form it. 2. z is called the Underlying form or Underlying Representation (UR), and the derived forms are called Surface Form or Surface Representation (SR),Rule ordering,The Elsewhere Condition

35、 The more specific rule applies first.,4.3 Distinctive features,The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then severa

36、l versions have been suggested.,Some of the major distinctions include consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced. The feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are +consonantal and all vowels consonantal. sonorant distinguishes between what we call obstruents

37、 (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being sonorant and others +sonorant. nasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.,These are known as binary features because we can group

38、them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by + and so voiced obstruents are marked +voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced.,The place features are not binary features they are divided up into four value

39、s: PLACE: Labial PLACE: Coronal PLACE: Dorsal PLACE: Radical They are often written in shorthand forms as Labialp Coronalp Dorsalp Radicalp,Another useful feature for consonants: spread: aspirated & unaspirated voiceless obstruents. Aspirated sounds: +spread unaspirated sounds: spread Now we can rep

40、resent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of features:,This general rule also applies to /t/ and /k/.,A more rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of features:,Past tense forms in English,stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached stabbed, wag

41、ged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged steamed, stunned, pulled played, flowed, studied wanted, located, decided, guided,The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as t when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, d when it ends with a voiced sound, and d when it ends with t or d.,5. Su

42、prasegmentals,Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are:,monosyllable English syllables: polysyllable,5.1 The syllable structure, Onset Rime (Rhyme) Nucleus (Peak) Coda k r k t tei -b l Ex: bed, dead, fed, head

43、, led, red, said, thread,Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) e.g.: Spring sixth Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) /n/ / / Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllables: When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into t

44、he onset rather than the coda. E.g.: telling,5.2 Stress,Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion.,At the word level, it only applies to w