第二语言学习策略.ppt

1、Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers,An overview of language learning strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. Background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarises key refl

2、ections and questions for future research on this aspect of L2/FL education.,A gradual but significant shift over the last few decades resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change reflected in language education and applied linguistics:

3、 the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner and annual Learners Conferences held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on the learner-centred curriculum (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and learner-centredness as language education (T

4、udor, 1996).,Learning Strategies,early definitions reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as behaviours and t

5、houghts that a learner engages in during learning which are intended to influence the learners encoding process (p. 315).,Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (p. 11). Clearly, LS are involved

6、in all learning, regardless of the content and context.,LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments.,Language Learning Strategies Defined,Within L2/FL education, a number of definit

7、ions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incoporate these into ones interlanguage competence (p. 67). Rubin (1987) LS are strategies which contribute to

8、the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly (p. 22).,OMalley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1). (Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/19

9、93) provides specific examples of LLS i.e., In learning ESL, Trang (1) watches U.S. TV soap operas, (2) guesses the meaning of new expressions (3) predicting what will come next,.language learning strageties specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use t

10、o improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language.,Strategies are tools for (4) the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18). From these def

11、initions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), to a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS.,LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learners natural, habitual, an

12、d preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid, 1995, p. viii), there is also obvious relationship between language learning style and usual or preferred language learning strategies.,What are the Characteristics of LLS?,Although the terminology is not al

13、ways uniform, with some writers using the terms learner strategies (Wendin Chamot they are steps taken by language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third

14、, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.).,When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note (5)a desire for control and a

15、utonomy of learning Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner.,Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, (Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989).,Oxfords twelve key

16、features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS: (6) allow learners to become more self-directed (7) expand the role of language teachers (8) are problem-oriented (9) involve many aspects, not just the cognitive (10) can be taught (11) are flexible (12) are influenced b

17、y a variety of factors. (Oxford, 1990a, p. 9),Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?,Within communicative approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so.,An important distinc

18、tion exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990).,The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/F

19、L learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their students communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS .are es

20、pecially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence (p. 1).,In addition to developing students communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to

21、 use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on good language learners by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and

22、 monitoring ones L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers.,OMalley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Grahams (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers

23、can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.,Skehan (1989) cautions there is always the possibility that the good language learning strategies.are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful (p. 76). Vann and Abraham (19

24、90) found evidence that both good and unsuccessful language learners can be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners apparently.lacked.what are often called metacognitive strategies.which would enable them to assess the task and b

25、ring to bear the necessary strategies for its completion (p. 192).,A number and range of LLS are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning the L2/FL and in becoming good language learners.,What Kinds of LLS Are There?,There are literally hundreds of different, yet often int

26、errelated, LLS. Oxford has developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS, which directly involve the subject matter, i.e. the L2 or FL, and indirect LLS, which do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to lan

27、guage learning nonetheless (p. 71).,Second, each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies aid in entering information into long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication.

28、Cognitive LLS are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language. Compensation strategies are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language“ (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71).,Oxford (1990a, 1990b) also describes three types of indire

29、ct LLS. Metacognitive strageties help learners exercise executive control through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning. Affective LLS enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning. Finally, social strategies facilitate intera

30、ction with others, often in a discourse situation (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71).,These six main types of LLS (Oxford 1990a, pp. 18-21), are further divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. for example, the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in

31、 Oxford (1990a): asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathising with others (p. 21). General examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows: Asking questions Asking for clarification or verification Asking for correctionCo-operating with others Co-operating with peers

32、Co-operating with proficient users of the new language Empathising with others Developing cultural understanding Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990a, p. 21),In asking questions, for example, students might ask something specific like Do you mean.? or Did you say that.? in o

33、rder to clarify or verify what they think they have heard or understood.,What is important to note here is the way LLS are interconnected, both direct and indirect, and the support they can provide one to the other (see Oxford, 1990a, pp. 14-16). In the above illustration of social LLS, for example,

34、 a student might ask the questions above of his or her peers, thereby co-operating with others, and in response to the answer he or she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL cultural understanding or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow students, the teacher, or

35、those in the L2/FL culture.,What is learned from this experience might then be supported when the same student uses a direct, cognitive strategy such as practising to repeat what he or she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural conversation with someone in the target L2/FL.,USIN

36、G LLS IN THE CLASSROOM,Contexts and Classes for LLS Training LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process

37、itself.,In this case, texts such as Ellis and Sinclairs (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training or Rubin and Thompsons (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner might be used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning process, the nature of lang

38、uage and communication, what language learning resources are available to them, and what specific LLS they might use in order to improve their own vocabulary use, grammar knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.,Three step approach to implementing LLS training in the

39、 classroom,Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context At first, it is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. it is crucial to know something about the learners, their interests, motivations, learning styles,

40、 etc.,By observing their behaviour in class, for example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction,? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users

41、?,Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning.,Sharkey (1994/1995), for instance, asks students to complete statements such as In this class I want to/will/wont., My favou

42、rite/least favourite kinds of class activities are., I am studying English because., etc. (Sharkey, 1994/1995, p. 19).,Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about ones students, the

43、ir goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught.,Beyond the students, however, ones teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analysed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS train

44、ing. Scarcella and Oxfords (1992) Tapestry textbook series, for example, incorporates learning strategy boxes which highlight LLS and encourage students to use them in L2/FL tasks or skills.,One example from a conversation text in the series states: Managing Your Learning: Working with other languag

45、e learners improves your listening and speaking skills (Earle-Carlin & Proctor, 1996, p. 8). EFL writing texts may have brief sections on making ones referents clear, outlining, and choosing the right vocabulary, all of which may be modelled and used in LLS training in composition course.,Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for spec