three rhetorical appeals(三种修辞手法)

1、English Rhetoric and Writing,The Rhetorical Triangle Why you are competent to speak on the issue; and Where your authority comes from.,The Reader (the people that the rhetor addresses),What emotion do you want to evoke? Fear, trust, loyalty.? Do you have shared values you want to draw on? How do you

2、r audiences beliefs fit with your message?,The Context (the content and the circumstances of communication),Have I presented a logical, well-constructed argument? How do I support my claims? What evidence do I have? What are the counterarguments?,Example:,Consider an everyday problem of persuading o

3、thers: you want someone to close a window.,e.g.,Could I impose by asking you to close that window? If youre not too busy and wouldnt mind doing me a favor, Id sure like to have that window closed. Please shut the window. Hey, buddy, shut that window. Shut the windows right now. Must you always leave

4、 the window open like that? Youd better shut that window. If you dont shut that window right now, Ill never speak to you again.,9). I hope you wont mind shutting the window. 10). I know youre busy, but could you possibly take the time to shut that window? 11). Shut that window. 12). From now on, I e

5、xpect that window to be kept closed. 13). That window needs to be shut, doesnt it? 14). Youve been leaving the window open a little too much, dont you think? 15). “Its quite cold in here, Jeeves.” “Ill shut the windows, madam.”,Summarize:,The best way to say “Shut the window” depends on context on w

6、ho your listener is, what your relationship with the listener is, where you are, how you want to present yourself. Rhetoric is choice in a context.,The three points on the Rhetorical Triangle relate directly to the three classic appeals. Ethos Building trust by establishing your credibility and auth

7、ority (Speaker/Writer) Pathos Appealing to emotion by connecting with your audience through their values and interests (Audience) Logos Appeal to intelligence with well-constructed and clearly argued ideas (Context).,16) Dont you think it would be more comfortable in here if we closed that window? (

8、persuade by offering good reasons) 17) Since our country is faced with an energy crisis; we should all pitch in and keep the windows closed to conserve heat. (persuade by emotional appeal) 18) Johnny, shut that window immediately, and then return to your seat. (persuade by authority),The Three Rheto

9、rical Appeals,Ethos, Pathos, and Logos,Logos (Greek for word) means persuading by the use of reasoning. Ethos (Greek for character) means convincing by the character of the author. Pathos (Greek for suffering or experience) means persuading by appealing to the readers emotions.,Author and Ethos,For

10、Aristotle, the writers ethos meant the degree of credibility or trustworthiness that authors establish with the audience through their writing. Through tone, an authors character and attitude toward his/her audience and subject becomes clear to the audience: this forms the basis of the authors ethic

11、al appeal.,Two kinds of ethos,Invented Ethos,Situated Ethos,Invented ethos develops in the discourse by the tone and attitude the speaker / writer takes toward his audience and subject.,Situated ethos relies largely on the speakers pre-existing reputation.,Bill Clintons ethical character and persona

12、l character,Dennis Rodman,Michael Jordan,Example: the Checkers Speech,Background of Checkers Speech,In 1952, Eisenhower chose a young senator from California named Richard Nixon as his vice presidential running mate. By late summer, as a number of newspapers began charging that Nixon had been the re

13、cipient of an illegal slush fund(收买基金，贿赂基金), Eisenhower considered dropping Nixon from the ticket. Nixon persuaded Eisenhower to let him appear on TV, which in 1952 was fairly new, to explain his financial dealings over his lifetime and in the process exonerate(证明无罪; 使.免罪) himself.,Excerpt: the Chec

14、kers Speech,I was born in 1913. Our family was one of modest circumstances and most of my early life was spent in a store out in East Whittier. It was a grocery store - one of those family enterprises. The only reason we were able to make it go was because my mother and dad had five boys and we all

15、worked in the store. I worked my way through college and to a great extent through law school. And then, in 1940, probably the best thing that ever happened to me happened, I married Pat - who is sitting over here. We had a rather difficult time after we were married, like so many of the young coupl

16、es who may be listening to us. I practiced law; she continued to teach school. Then in 1942 I went into the service. Let me say that my service record was not a particularly unusual one. I went to the South Pacific. I guess Im entitled to a couple of battle stars. I got a couple of letters of commen

17、dation but I was just there when the bombs were falling and then I returned. I returned to the United States and in 1946 I ran for the Congress.,Jackie Joyner-Kersee,I always knew I could run fast, but without Mr. Fennoy, I would have never know I could run so far. - Jackie. Joyce-Kersee,Our home wa

18、s on Piggott street, across from a liquor store and a poll hall. But it was also near a recreation center, where Mr. Fennoy was a volunteer. Even though I was too young, I had no other place to go, so Mr. Fennoy let me come to the center and run. Soon I could catch the older girls, and soon after th

19、at I was passing them. Nion Fnnoy gave a young girl named Jackie a place to play. But today many kids arent given that chance. You can help give a child the opportunity to play. To learn now, please call 1-800-929-play.,Establish Ethos in academic essays,Following M.L.A / A.P.A. format Citing reliab

20、le sources Using I or we with identifiers Fixing up the organization Using Standard English,Audience and pathos,Pathos, Greek for emotion, indicates an appeal to the emotions of an audience, or, as Aristotle puts it, Creating a certain disposition in the audience”.,The ad: Help Stop a Different kind

21、 of Child Abuse,This abuse is merciless. It preys on innocent, fragile lives and brutalizes them with utter poverty with constant hunger with relentless diseases with no hope for even a basic education. As hard as parents of children like this struggle, they simply cant make the ravages of poverty g

22、o away. But you can help. You can ease the pain. Became a Save the Children sponsor and help stop the horrible abuse that poverty that inflicts on children. Please call ,One other thing I probably should tell you because if we dont theyll probably be saying this about me too, we did get something a

23、gift after the election. A man down in Texas heard Pat on the radio mention the fact that our two youngsters would like to have a dog. And, believe it or not, the day before we left on this campaign trip we got a message from Union Station in Baltimore saying they had a package for us. We went down

24、to get it. You know what it was? It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate that hed sent all the way from Texas. Black and white spotted. And our little girl Tricia, the 6-year old named it Checkers. And you know, the kids, like all kids, love the dog and I just want to say this right now, that

25、regardless of what they say about it, were gonna keep it.,Excerpt from Nixons “checkers” speech,In April of 1963, a young, relatively unknown minister left his home and church in Atlanta, Georgia to help his friends and colleagues protest nonviolently against segregation and discrimination in Birmin

26、gham, Alabama. That minister, Martin Luther King, Jr., was arrested and held in jail. While in jail, several priests, rabbis, and ministers published a letter in the Birmingham newspaper, calling this young ministers actions unwise and poorly timed. Their letter suggested that King and other civil r

27、ights leaders should just wait, that the life was bound to get better for American blacks, if they just waited. In response to that editorial, King wrote one of the greatest pieces of literature in English, his Letter from Birmingham Jail.,Background of Letter from Birmingham Jail,Excerpt of Letter

28、from Birmingham Jail,We have waited for more than three hundred and forty years for our constitutional and God-given rights. The nations of Asia and Africa are moving with jet-like speed toward the goal of political independence, and we still creep at horse and buggy pace toward the gaining of a cup

29、 of coffee at a lunch counter. I guess it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to say, Wait. But when you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at will and drown your sisters and brothers at whim; when you have seen hate filled policemen curse, kick

30、, brutalize and even kill your black brothers and sisters with impunity;,when you see the vast majority of your twenty million Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of poverty in the midst of an affluent society; when you suddenly find your tongue twisted and your speech stammering as you se

31、ek to explain to your six-year-old daughter why she cant go to the public amusement park that has just been advertised on television, and see tears welling up in her eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to colored children, and see the depressing clouds of inferiority begin to form in her li

32、ttle mental sky, and see her begin to distort her little personality by unconsciously developing a bitterness toward white people; when you have to concoct an answer for a five-year-old son asking in agonizing pathos: Daddy, why do white people treat colored people so mean?;,when you take a cross-co

33、untry drive and find it necessary to sleep night after night in the uncomfortable corners of your automobile because no motel will accept you; when you are humiliated day in and day out by nagging signs reading white and colored; when your first name becomes nigger, your middle name becomes boy (how

34、ever old you are) and your last name becomes John, and your wife and mother are never given the respected title Mrs.; when you are harried by day and haunted by night by the fact that you are a Negro, living constantly at tip-toe stance never quite knowing what to expect next, and plagued with inner

35、 fears and outer resentments; when you are forever fighting a degenerating sense of nobodiness; then you will understand why we find it difficult to wait. - Martin Luther King Jr.,Cicero, the Roman statesman and rhetorician, stated that nothing dries so quickly as a tear. Emotion, alone, is seldom e

36、nough to give an idea or argument enough backing.,Logos: Logical Appeals.,Logos appeals to patterns, conventions, and modes of reasoning that the audience finds convincing and persuasive (Covino and Jolliffe 17).,In making decisions about the best way to use logos, the writer must answer three quest

37、ions:,What do we believe, think, or feel in common? Are the premises, or evidence, for the argument just and appropriate? and Does the proper conclusion follow from the assumptions of the premises and what would prevent the audience from accepting the conclusion? (Covino and Jolliffe 17).,In any non

38、violent campaign there are four basic steps: 1) Collection of the facts to determine whether injustices are alive. 2) Negotiation. 3) Self-purification and 4) Direct action. We have gone through all of these steps in Birmingham. There can be no gainsaying of the fact that racial injustice engulfs th

39、is community. Birmingham is probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States. Its ugly record of police brutality is known in every section of this country. Its unjust treatment of Negroes in the courts is a notorious reality. There have been more unsolved bombings of Negro homes an

40、d churches in Birmingham than any city in this nation. These are the hard, brutal and unbelievable facts. On the basis of these conditions, Negro leaders sought to negotiate with the city fathers. But the political leaders consistently refused to engage in good faith negotiation. Martin Luther King,

41、 Jr.s Letter from Birmingham Jail.,There are two general ways of reasoning, of generating a logical appeal: induction(归纳) and deduction（推理）. Induction is the method of reasoning from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals, or from the individual to the universal. Deduction, the inverse to i

42、nduction, is the method of reasoning from generals to particulars and is the most common form of reasoning in argument.,With deductive logic, the conclusion is a necessary consequence of the premises, based on rules pertaining to valid arguments. The most common type of deductive logic is a syllogis

43、m 【逻】推论式, 三段论(法) , which represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.,The hypothetical syllogism,Major premise: If P, then Q If P, then Q Minor premise: P Not Q Conclusion: Therefore Q Therefore not P Example: If the lines of a poem d

44、o not rhyme, the poem may be called blank verse; as this poem is rhymeless, you may call it blank verse.,The either-or syllogism,Major premise: Either A or B (not both) Either A or B Minor premise: ANot A Conclusion: Therefore not BTherefore B Example: We could have driven there or taken a taxi. Unf

45、ortunately our car broke down that day, and so we went there by taxi.,The categorical syllogism,Major premise: All Ms are Ps Minor premise: S is an M Conclusion: Therefore S is a P Example: All men are mortal creatures. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal creature.,With inductive logi

46、c, coming to a valid conclusion is a bit more tricky: the conclusion is only more or less probable on the basis of the premises and often not possible to be proven true absolutely. The premises of inductive arguments are based on generalizations, analogies or causal connections.,Syllogisms and Enthy

47、memes: The Processes of Logos,A syllogism is the most common type of deductive logic. Aristotle thought of it as the main instrument for reaching scientific conclusions. an enthymeme, on the other hand, is the rhetorical equivalent of the syllogism (Corbett 73). In fact, Aristotle himself defined an

48、 enthymeme as a rhetorical syllogism, saying that enthymeme is to rhetoric as syllogism is to logic (Covino and Jolliffe 20).,enthymeme逻省略三段论法,An enthymeme is the chief way that logical arguments are built. Most of the time an enthymeme is identifiable by words such as because, since, for, therefore

49、, so, thus, and hence, which signal either the conclusion or the support for an argument. E.g. Pit bulls should be illegal because they are dangerous animals.,One of the ways to test the validity of such a claim, is to break it down into what is known as a syllogism逻三段论法, which proceeds from major p

50、remise to minor premise to claim: Dangerous animals should be illegal (major premise) Pit bulls are dangerous animals (minor premise) Pit bulls should be illegal (claim or conclusion),An enthymeme attempts to use the audiences common-sense beliefs to persuade them (Crowley 156). E.g. John will surel

51、y fail his calculus exam, because he hasnt studied. Where there is smoke, there is fire.,Difference:,Whereas the syllogism produces a valid conclusion from the truth of its premises, the enthymeme gives us only tentative conclusions based on probable premises. Enthymemes are powerful because they ex

52、press beliefs that are widely shared within the audience. Therefore, whether or not the reasoning is sound or the premises valid, the audience is very likely to accept the conclusion of the enthymeme simply because it relies so heavily on commonly held beliefs (Crowley 159). Unlike the syllogism, th

53、erefore, the enthymeme can not be proven true. Neither the premises nor the conclusions of the enthymeme are provable (Covino and Jolliffe 20).,Now, what is the difference between the two? How does one determine whether a law is just or unjust? A just law is a man-made code that squares with the mor

54、al law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code that is out of harmony with the moral law. To put it in the terms of St. Thomas Aquinas: An unjust law is a law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law. Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality

55、 is unjust. All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority.(to be continued),Segregation, to use the terminology of the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber, substitutes an I-it relationship for an I-thou relationship and ends up relegating persons to the status of things. Hence segregation is not only politically, economically and sociologically unsound, it is morally wrong and sinful. Paul Tillich has said