非英语专业学生英语学习观念、学习策略与动机调查

摘要

自20世纪70年代始，第二语言习得的研究开始从教学方

法研究的层次转向学习者个体差异方面，而学习者个体差异涉

及心理年龄、语言学能、学习动机、认知风格、学习策略和性

格特征等诸多因素，其中学习策略是学习者个体差异研究的关

键。对学习策略和影响学习策略使用的因素进行研究，对外语

教学具有积极的指导意义。只有了解和指导学生如何学，帮助

他们建立正确的语言学习观和采取有效的学习策略，才能提高

教学效果和减轻学生的学习负担。止匕外，对学生的学习策略开

展研究有助于教师科学地设计和有效地进行教学活动。

国内外对学习策略的研究经历了三个阶段：第一阶段主要

针对第二语言学习者所采用的策略进行区分和归纳；第二阶段

主要针对学习策略的定义和分类；第三阶段主要研究策略的有

效性。我国从20世纪80年代开始对学习策略进行研究，并取

得了很大的进展。所有研究极大丰富和扩展了学习策略的内涵。

然而，由于教育背景、学习目标、教学方法、任务要求和学习

对象不同，并非所有的结论都一致。此外，中国对学习策略的

研究大部分都集中在学生达到某一项语言技能所使用的策略

上，很少涉及到影响学习策略使用的因素。因此，从这一方面

对学习策略进行研究有其必要性。

本研究旨在调查普通高校学生的英语学习观念、学习策略

和学习动机，以及学习策略受观念和动机影响的情况。调查设

计的问题如下：（1）非英语专业学生有怎样的英语学习观念、

学习策略和动机；（2）学生的观念、学习策略和动机经过三年

的英语学习是否发生变化；6）观念、学习策略和动机之间是

否存在相关性，观念和动机在多大程度上影响学习策略的选择

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和使用。调查的对象涉及到同一专业的一年级、二年级和三年

级的129名非英语专业学生。所采用的工具为调查表，访谈

和观察，并利用SPSS对所收集的数据进行分析。研究结果表

明：学生有清楚的英语学习观念，但很少把自己所想付诸实施,

因而尽可能未在英语学习中采用学习策略，其学习动机不强。

随着英语水平的提高，他们的观念、学习策略和动机逐渐发生

变化：管理观念、关注意义观念、关注准确观念和关注流畅的

观念越来越强，而关注形式观念和依赖母语的观念越来越弱；

他们逐渐采用管理策略、关注意义策略和关注流畅的策略，而

较少采纳关注形式策略和依赖母语的策略；他们的表层动机没

有变化，而深层动机逐渐加强。统计结果表明：观念和学习策

略密切相关，动机和学习策略为其次，观念和动机的相关性最

小。观念和动机在一定程度上影响学习策略的选择和使用。本

研究强调加强学生观念、动机和学习策略的培养，并将学习策

略的培训融入到教学中，使其成为英语教学的一部分。

关键词：非英语专业学生；英语学习；观念；动机；学习策略

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Abstract

Sincetheearly1970s,researchinthefieldofsecond

languageacquisitionhasshiftedfromteachingmethodsto

individuallearnerdifferences.Individuallearnerdifferences

involvemanyfactorssuchasage,languageaptitude,motivation,

cognitivestyleandlearningstrategies,amongwhichlearning

strategiesbecomeoneofthemajorconcernsinlanguagelearning.

Researchonlearningstrategiesandthefactorsthataffectthe

choiceanduseoflearningstrategyshowsgreatpotentialbecause

understandinghowthestudentslearnaforeignlanguageisthe

criticalpreconditionofdetermininghowthelanguageteachers

teach.Moreover,understandingstudents9learningprocessis

helpfultolanguageteachersinthedesignandimplementationof

effectivelanguageinstruction.

Uptonow,agreatdealofresearchhasbeendoneonlearning

strategiesathomeandabroad.Researchonlearningstrategieshas

experiencedthreestagessince1970s:thefirststageconcernswith

identifyingandlistingallthestrategiesthatsecondlanguage

learnersusedintheirlearning;thesecondstagefocuseson

classifyingandgivingdefinitionstolearningstrategiesandthe

thirdstagedealswiththeeffectivenessoflearningstrategieswith

theirresultsreportedandcompared.Researchresultshaveproved

thatlearningstrategiesarebeneficialtoimprovingthelearning

efficiency.InChina,researchonlearningstrategieshasbeen

increasingsince1980s.Mostoftheseresearchfocusesonone

aspectoflanguagelearningskillsfrommicropointofviewand

someconvincingresultshavebeenacquired.

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However,duetodifferenteducationalsettings,learninggoals,

teachingmethods,taskrequirementsandsubjects,thefindingsare

notcompletelyconsistentandfurtherinvestigationsneedtobe

conducted.Moreover,therelationshipbetweenlearningstrategies

andotherfactorsaffectinglearningstrategychoiceanduseis

seldomstudied.

Thisstudyisundertakentofindoutthestudents'learning

strategiesatgeneralhigherinstitutesandhowtheirlearning

strategiesareaffectedbybeliefsandmotivations.Thesubjects

involvedare129non-Englishmajorstudentsfromfreshmen,

sophomoreandjuniorofthesamemajor.Theinstrumentsusedto

collectthedataarequestionnaire,interviewandobservation.The

SPSSisusedtoanalyzethedata.Theresearchresultsindicatethat

studentshaveclearbeliefsaboutEnglishlearning,buttheycannot

putwhattheybelieveinintopracticecompletelyandadoptall

kindslearningstrategiesintheirEnglishlearning.Theirmotivation

oflearningEnglishisnotstrong.Withtheimprovementoftheir

English,students5beliefs,motivationandlearningstrategies

changegraduallyduringthethreeyears'collegeEnglishlearning:

theirmanagementbeliefs,meaning-focusedbeliefs,

accuracy-focusedbeliefsandfluency-focusedbeliefsarebecoming

strongerandstrongerwhereastheirform-focusedbeliefsand

mother-tongue-reliancebeliefsaregettingweakerandweaker;they

graduallymoreadoptmanagementstrategies,meaning-focused

strategiesandfluency-focusedstrategiesandlessadopt

form-focusedstrategies,accuracy-focusedstrategiesand

mother-tongue-reliancestrategies;theirsurfacemotivationalmost

hasnochanges,whiletheirdeepmotivationisgettingstrongerand

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stronger.Statisticalresultsalsoshowthatthereisaclose

relationshipbetweenthebeliefs,motivationandlearningstrategies,

buttherelationshipsbetweenbeliefsandmotivationareweaker.It

isalsofoundthatbeliefsandmotivationaffectthechoiceanduse

oflearningstrategiestosomedegree.Finally,thenecessityof

cultivatingstudents9beliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivationis

putforwardandconductionofthelearningstrategyteachingand

trainingisrecommended.

Keywords:non-Englishmajorstudent;Englishlearning;belief;

learningstrategy;motivation

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Introduction

0.1SignificanceofResearch

Inthepasttwentyyears'collegeEnglishteaching,great

attentionhasalwaysbeenpaidtotheimprovementofteaching

materialsandtheexplorationofteachingmethodsandteaching

models,andgreatsuccesshasbeenachieved.Butstudents9learning

processandindividualdifferencesareignoredtogreatextent.

However,inrecentyears,researchersandlanguageteachersbegin

torealizetheimportanceofstudyingstudents9learningprocessand

givingmoreconcernfortheirindividualdifferences.That'swhy

moreandmoreempiricalresultsappearinbooksandjournals,

whichgreatlyinspiresinterestsinstudyingstudentsthemselves.

Studyonstudents9learningprocessandindividualdifferencescan

helplanguageteacherstoimprovetheirteachingandgivebetter

guidancetostudents9learning.

Nowadaysweoftenhearofthestudents5complaint.Theysay

thattheyhavespentalotoftimeandenergylearningEnglish,but

madelittleprogress;theyhavegreattroublesinlearningsomany

newwordsandphrasesbyheart;eveniftheycanmemorizethe

newwordsandphrases,butsometimelatertheyforgetagainand

stilldonotknowhowtousethem.Somestudentsevencomplain

thattheirEnglishlevelisnotimprovedatallduringthecollege

Englishlearning.It?struethatteachersshouldtrytheirbestto

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improvetheirteachinglevelandteachingmethods.Butonthe

otherhand,thestudentsmaylackcorrectbeliefs,appropriate

learningstrategiesandstrongmotivation,whichresultsinthe

undesirableeffects.Insuchasituation,it'sveryimportantto

understandhowthestudentslearnEnglish,whichisthecritical

preconditionofdetermininghowteachersteach.Onlybyteaching

studentshowtolearnandcultivatingtheireffectivelearning

strategiescanteachersimprovetheirteachingandlearningeffects

andrelievethestudents'learningburdensothatteachingquality

canbegreatlyimproved.

Inaddition,havingafullunderstandingofthestudents5

beliefs,motivationandlearningstrategiesishelpfultolanguage

teachersinthedesignandimplementationofeffectivelanguage

instruction.Byinvestigatingtherelationshipsbetweenbeliefs,

learningstrategiesandmotivation,languageteacherscandesigna

betterteachingmodelandcarryoutstrategytraininginstructionto

helpstudentstoachievetheirlearninggoals.Finally,byconducting

theempiricalresearch,thetheoryofthelanguageacquisitioncan

begreatlyenrichedandperfected.Therefore,thestudyonbeliefs,

learningstrategiesandmotivationissignificant.

0.2ObjectivesofResearch

Inthisthesis,theauthorattemptstofindthenon-English

majorstudents5beliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivation,how

theirbeliefsandmotivationaffectthelearningstrategies,andwhat

relationshipexistsbetweenbeliefs,learningstrategiesand

motivationbyinvestigation,interviewsandobservation.The

researchquestionstobeaddressedinthestudyarethefollowing:(1)

investigatethebeliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivationof

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non-EnglishmajorstudentsaboutEnglishlearning;(2)discoverif

beliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivationoffreshmen,sophomores

andjuniorshavechangedovertime;(3)determineiftherearesome

correlationsbetweenbeliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivation,

andexploretheextenttowhichbeliefsandmotivationaffectthe

choiceanduseoflearningstrategies.

0.3StructureofThesis

Thisthesisconsistsofthefollowingfiveparts:(1)relevant

studies.Inthispart,abriefdescriptionofwhathasbeendonein

beliefs,learningstrategiesandmotivationathomeandabroadis

given.(2)Interpretationofthekeyterms.Thispartmainlydeals

withtheconceptualdefinitionsandclassificationsinthestudy.(3)

Researchmethodology.Thispartinvolvesthedescriptionofthe

subjects,instrumentsusedtomeasurethevariables,processof

data-collectionandtheprocedureofthedata-analysis.(4)Results

anddiscussion.Thispartmainlydiscussesandanalyzestheresults

thathavebeenobtained,andanswersthequestionsthatareput

forwardatthebeginningofthethesis.Meanwhile,thepossible

reasonsforthespecificfindingsandsignificanceofthefindingsare

explained.(5)Conclusionandimplication.Thispartprovidesthe

majorfindings,theimplicationsofthefindingsand

recommendationsforthefutureresearch.

1.RelevantStudiesonBeliefs,LearningStrategiesand

Motivation

Inthispart,relevantstudiesonbeliefs,learningstrategiesand

motivationaredescribedandevaluatedindetail.

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1.1Belief

Infact,therehasbeenlittleresearchaboutbeliefsandhow

learners'beliefsaffectlanguagelearning,tosaynothingofthe

relationshipbetweenbeliefsandlearningstrategies.ButWenden,

HorwitzandAbraham&Vann'sresearchresultsaresuggestive.

Wenden(1986a;1987a),onthebasisofhisstudy,summarized

threegeneralcategoriesofbeliefs(Ellis1994:447):(1)useof

language.Itincludesbeliefsrelatedtotheimportanceof"learning

inanaturalway,----practicing,tryingtothinkintheL2,and

livingandstudyinginanenvironmentwheretheL2isspoken;(2)

learningaboutthelanguage.Learnerswithbeliefsinthiscategory

emphasizedlearninggrammarandvocabulary,enrollingina

languageclass,receivingfeedbackonerrorstheymade,andbeing

mentallyactive;(3)importanceofpersonalfactors.Itincludes

beliefsaboutfeelingsthatfacilitateorinhibitlearning,self-concept

andaptitudeforlearning.Healsofoundthatlearnerswho

emphasizedtheimportanceoflearningtendedtousecognitive

strategiesthathelpedthemtounderstandandrememberspecific

itemsoflanguage,whilelearnerswhoemphasizedtheimportance

ofusinglanguageemployedfewlearningstrategies,relyinginstead

oncommunicationstrategies(Ellis1994:541).

Horwitz(1987a)usedaquestionnairetoinvestigatethebelief

of32intermediatelevelstudentsofdifferentethnicbackgrounds.

Hediscussedtheresultintermsoffivegeneralareas:(1)beliefs

aboutaptitude;(2)beliefsaboutthewaytolearnEnglish;(3)

beliefsaboutEnglish-speakingcultures;(4)beliefaboutlearning

andcommunicationstrategies;(5)beliefaboutavoidingerrors.

AbrahamandVann(1987)foundsomeevidencethatbeliefs

mightaffectlearningoutcomesinacasestudyoftwolearners.

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Bothlearnersbelievedthatitwasimportanttocreatesituationsfor

usingEnglishoutsidetheclassroom,topracticeasmuchas

possible,andtohaveerrorcorrected.Bothofthemalsobelievedit

importanttoparticipateactivelyinclass.Abraham&Vann's

investigationalsoshowsthatdifferentviewsaboutlanguage

learningmayresultindifferentkindsofsuccess.

Therefore,beliefscannotbeseparatedfromindividuallearner

differencesinforeignlanguagelearningandlearningstrategies

becausethestudyonbelief'(constitutesanimportantareaof

enquiry,asitisreasonabletoassumethattheir"philosophy5

dictatestheirapproachtolearningandchoiceofspecificlearning

strategies(Ellis1994:479).Dr.WenQiufang'sresearchresult

(1996,2001)alsoshowsthatbeliefsaffectlearningstrategiesand

RodEllis(1994:540-541)believesthatlearners,beliefsabout

languagelearningmayalsoaffecttheirstrategychoiceanduse.

1.2LearningStrategy

Sincetheearly1970s,researchinthefieldofsecondlanguage

acquisitionhasshiftedfromteachingmethodstoindividuallearner

differences.Individuallearnerdifferencesinvolvethemanyfactors

suchasage,languageaptitude,motivation,cognitivestyleand

learningstrategies,amongwhichlearningstrategybecomesoneof

themajorconcernsandresearchonthemshowsgreatpotential.A

greatdealofresearchhasbeendoneonlearningstrategiesathome

andabroad.Mostoftheresearchresultsrevealthatlearning

strategiesarebeneficialtolanguagelearners.

Thestudyonlearningstrategieshasseenan“explosionof

activity”(Skehen1991:285)(citedinRodEllis1994:529)in

recentyearsandattractedmoreandmorelanguageresearchers5

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attention.Inthissection,themajorresearchfindingsathomeand

abroadinthisfieldaredescribed.First,abriefintroductionofthe

backgroundanddevelopmentoflearningstrategiesisgiven,and

thenthedefinitionsandclassificationsoflearningstrategiesare

described.

1.2.1BackgroundandDevelopmentofLearningStrategies

Thestudyonlearningstrategiesbeganin1970sandgrewout

ofattemptstocharacterizegoodlanguagelearners(Rubin1975;

Stern1975;Naimanetal1975).Intheearlystudies,somedistinct

featuresofgoodlanguagelearnerswereidentified:(1)

preparednesstoguess;(2)attempttocommunicate;(3)willingness

toappearfoolish;(4)attentiontoform;(5)practicing;(6)

monitoringownandothers'speech;and(7)attendingtomeaning

(Ellis1994:547).Afterthat,manyresearchersfurtherdiscussedthe

featuresofgoodlanguagelearners,includingtheconcept,

definitionandclassificationoflearningstrategies.

Since1980's,mostofresearchmainlyconcentratesonthe

followingaspects:(1)essenceoflearning(Stern1983;Rubin1987;

Oxford1989andetc.);(2)classificationofstrategy(Oxford1990;

O,Malley&Chamot1990;Wenden1991;A.Cohen1998andetc.);

(3)factorsaffectingstrategyuse(O'Malley&Chamot1990;

Oxford1989;Nation&MachLaughlin1986andetc.)(4)strategies

usedbygoodlanguagelearners(Ellis1999;Huang&Naerssen

1985;O'Malley&Chamot1990andetc.);(5)relationshipbetween

learningstrategyuseandL2proficiency(Mamgubhai1991;Ellis

1999andetc.);(6)strategytrainingforlearners(Wenden1983;

Brown1989;Oxford1990andetc.)Theresearchdoneby

O'MalleyandChamotisthemostinfluential.Theirresearchwas

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basedontheinformationprocessingtheoryandguidedby

cognitivetheory.Onthebasisofresearchoninformation

comprehension,processingandstoring,theyobtainedaseriesof

theorizedlanguagelearningstrategies,classifiedthesestrategies

andgaveadetaileddescription.Thentheyputthesestrategiesinto

practiceandtestedthem.Theirextensivestudiesonthelanguage

learningstrategiesfromtheaspectsoftheoryandpractice,andthe

researchresultsgreatlyenrichedthelanguagelearningstrategies.

Severalnewtrendsappearedafter1990's.First,researchers

begantocombinetheresearchoflanguagelearningstrategieswith

theresearchonautonomylearningbecausetheultimategoalof

educationistohelpstudentsbecomeindependent,autonomousand

effectivelearners.Thatistosay,studyingonlearningstrategiesis

helpfultoexplorehowtofosterstudentstobecomeindependent,

autonomousandeffectivelearners.Thecombinationoflearning

strategiesandautonomylearningmakesthegoalofresearchon

learningstrategiesclearer,moreprofoundandmoremeaningful.

Second,learningstrategiesinstructionbecamethemajorconcern.

In1998,Cohenpublishedhisimportantworks-----Strategiesin

LearningandUsingaSecondLanguage,inwhichheparticularly

dealswiththeinfluencethatlanguageteachingmodelbasedon

learningstrategieshaveonforeignlanguagelearning,especially

theinfluenceonoralcompetence.Third,researchersonlanguage

learningstrategiesbegantoshowconcernfortherelationship

betweenlearningstrategiesandculture.Researchershavefound

thatlearningstrategyuseisnotonlyrelatedtolearners9age,

aptitude,intelligence,learningstyle,attitudeandmotivation,but

alsorelatedtotheculturalsettingstheyareinandtheculturethey

received.Undertheguidanceofsuchrealization,researchersbegan

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tostudythecharacteristicsoflearningstrategyuseunderdifferent

culturalbackgrounds.In1996,Oxfordpublishedher

book-----LanguageLearningStrategiesAroundtheWorld:

Cross-culturalPerspectives.

InChina,researchonlearningstrategieshasbeenincreasing

recentlyandhasmadegreatprogress.Mostoftheresearchfocuses

ononeaspectoflanguageskills:HuangXiaohua(1985)andGao

Haihong(2000)investigatedcommunicativestrategies;YuLu

(2003)andWuWeiying(2000)didsomeresearchonChinese

students9listeningstrategies;WangWenyu(1998),WuXia(1998),

WuLilin(2001),ZhangPing(2001),ChenHui(2001),LinMing

(2002)andZhangYe(2003)investigatedvocabularylearning

strategiesandtheirconsistentresultsshowthatvocabularylearning

strategieshavegreateffectonforeignlanguagelearning;Zhou

Xiaorong(2000)investigatedlearningstrategiesandtheir

relationshiptolearningachievementinreadingcomprehension.Dr.

WenQiufang(1995,1996a,1997,2001,)hasdonemoresystematic

researchonlearningstrategiesandtherelationshipbetween

learningstrategiesandlearningachievement.Theirresearchresults

indicatethatdifferentlearningmethodsarethemajorcausesthat

resultindifferencesinEnglishgrades;mother-tonguestrategies

andform-focusedstrategiescanclearlypredicttheresultofthe

CETofBandFourandthosewhohavepassedtheCETofBand

Fourmorefrequentlyusememorystrategies,cognitivestrategies,

metacognitivestrategiesandaffectivestrategies.

Inaddition,somebooksonlearningstrategiesarealso

publishedinChina.Thefirstworksonlanguagelearningstrategies

writtenbyWenQiufang:OnEnglishLearningStrategies-for

Englishlearners,waspublishedin1996.ThenKuaiChaoying

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publishedhisbook:LearningStrategyin1999andChenXiaotang

&ZhenMing'sEnglishLearningStrategywaspublishedin2003.

Thesebooksnotonlysummarizethetheoreticalframeoflearning

strategies,butalsointroducemanyapproachestolearningstrategy

instruction.Theirbooksshowgreatsignificanceintheoretical

researchandarehelpfultolearnersinpractice.

1.2.2DefinitionofLearningStrategy

Inthepast30years,languageresearchersdidn'treachthe

agreementaboutdefinitionoflanguagelearningstrategies.Thisis

becausedifferentlanguageresearchershavedifferent

understandingoflanguagelearningstrategies.Sothedefinitionof

languagelearningstrategiesisstillcontroversial.RodEllis(1994:

531)listedfivedifferentdefinitionsoflanguagelearningstrategies:

(1)Stern(1983):“Inourviewstrategyisbestreservedforgeneral

tendenciesoroverallcharacteristicsoftheapproachemployedby

thelanguagelearner,leavingtechniquesasthetermtoreferto

particularformsofobservablelearningbehavior^^;(2)Weinstein

andMayer(1986):"Learningstrategiesarethebehaviorsand

thoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearningthatareintended

toinfluencethelearner'sencodingprocess”;(3)Chamot(1987):

""Learningstrategiesaretechniques,approachesordeliberate

actionsthatstudentstakeinordertofacilitatethelearning,recallof

bothlinguisticandcontentareainformation^^;(4)Rubin(1987):

"Learningstrategiesarestrategieswhichcontributetothe

developmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructs

andaffectlearningdirectly”;and(5)Oxford(1987):"Language

learningstrategiesarebehaviorsoractionswhichlearnersuseto

makelanguagelearningmoresuccessful,self-directedand

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enjoyable”.

Allthesedefinitions,however,revealanumberofproblems.

First,itisnotclearwhethertheyaretobeperceivedofas

behavioral(and,therefore,observable)orasmental,orasboth.

Oxford(1987)appearstoseethemasessentiallybehavioral,

whereasWeinstainandMayer(1986)seethemasbothbehavioral

andmental.Asecondproblemconcernstheprecisenatureofthe

behaviorsthataretocountaslearningstrategies.Thereis

considerableuncertainty.Stern(1983)distinguishes“strategies”

and"techniques”.Theformeraredefinedasgeneralandmoreor

lessdeliberate"approaches9tolearning,whereasthelatter

constituteobservableformsoflanguagelearningbehaviorthatis

evidentinparticularareasoflanguagelearningsuchasgrammar

andvocabulary.Otherresearchers,however,haveusedtheterm

"strategy9torefertothekindofbehaviorsSterncallstechniques.A

thirdproblemiswhetherlearningstrategiesaretobeseenas

consciousandintentionalorassubconscious.Thisissueisavoided

addressinginthesedefinitions,butonlyChamot(1987)refersto

themas"deliberateactions9.Afourthproblemconcernswhether

learningstrategiesareseenashavingadirectoranindirecteffect

oninterlanguagedevelopment.Rubin(1987),somewhat

controversially,assertsthattheeffectisadirectone.Butother

researchers,suchasSelinger,considerittobemoreindirect-----

strategyuseprovideslearnerswithdata,uponwhichthe'deep'

subconsciousprocessescanwork.Finally,therearedifferencesin

opinionsaboutwhatmotivatestheuseoflearningstrategies.All

thesedefinitionsonlyrecognizethattheyareusedinaneffortto

learnsomethingaboutthesecondlanguage,butOxford(1989)also

suggeststhattheirusecanhaveaneffectivepurpose(i.e.to

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increaseenjoyment).

Inviewofalltheproblemsmentionedaboveinthese

definitions,RodEllisthinksthatoneofthebestapproachesto

defininglearningstrategiesistolisttheirmaincharacteristics.The

followingcharacteristicsarelistedbyRodEllis(1994:532):(1)

strategiesrefertobothgeneralapproachesandspecificactionsor

techniquesusedtolearnasecondlanguage;(2)strategiesare

problem-oriented-----thelearnerdeploysastrategytoovercome

someparticularlearningproblem;(3)learnersaregenerallyaware

ofthestrategiestheyuseandcanidentifywhattheyconsistofif

theyareaskedtopayattentiontowhattheyaredoing/thinking;(4)

strategiesinvolvelinguisticbehavior(suchasrequestingthename

ofanobject)andnon-linguistic(suchaspointingatanobjectsoas

tobetolditsname);(5)linguisticstrategiescanbeperformedin

thefirstlanguageandthesecondlanguage;(6)somestrategiesare

behavioralwhileothersaremental.Thussomestrategiesare

directlyobservable,whileothersarenot.(7)Inthemain,strategies

contributeindirectlytolearningbyprovidinglearnerswithdata

abouttheL2whichtheycanthenprocess.However,some

strategiesmayalsocontributedirectly(forexample,memorization

strategiesdirectedatspecificlexicalitemsorgrammaticalrules);(8)

strategyusevariesconsiderablyasaresultofboththekindoftask

thelearnerisengagedinandindividuallearnerpreferences.

TheeightcharacteristicslistedbyRodEllisgiveanswersto

thepreviousproblems.Fortheproblem(whetherlearning

strategiesarebehaviorandmental),RodEllisseesthemasboth

behaviorandmental.Forthesecondproblemabouttheprecise

natureoflearningstrategies,Ellisdoesn'tthinkitnecessaryto

distinguish“strategies"and"techniques“becauseitishardtotell

21

whetherabehaviorisanapproachoratechniqueinourpractical

research.Forthethirdproblem(whetherlearningstrategiesareto

beseenasconsciousorsubconscious,behaviorsoractions),Ellis

believesthatlearningstrategiesareconsciousbehaviors.Buthe

ignoresanimportantfactthatthereareindividualdifferencesinthe

degreeofconsciousness.Inotherwords,someindividualsmaybe

awareofthelearningstrategieswhereasotherindividualsmaynot.

Forthefourthproblem(whetherlearningstrategiesareseenas

havingadirectoranindirecteffectoninterlanguagedevelopment),

Ellisbelievesthatmoststrategieshavenodirecteffectson

languagedevelopmentandonlysmallpartdo.Infact,“direct”and

“indirect“arerelativeconcepts.Itdependsonthenatureofour

research.Ifwewanttofindouttherelationshipbetweenacertain

strategyandthemasteryofcertainlanguageknowledge,maybewe

cannotfindthedirectrelationshipinmostcases;butifthe

relationshipbetweenthegeneralsituationoflanguagestrategyuse

andgeneralleveloflanguagedevelopmentiscompared,it'slikely

tofindthedirectrelationship.

Fromtheabovediscussion,wecanfinditimportanttodiscuss

thedifferencesinthedefinitionsoflanguagelearningstrategies

becausedifferentideasaboutthelanguagelearningstrategiesmay

leadtodifferentrangesofstrategyresearch.

1.2.3ClassificationofLearningStrategy

Afterascertainingthecharacteristicsofsuccessfullanguage

learnersandidentifyingthelearningstrategiestheyuse,the

classificationoflearningstrategiesgraduallybecomesthemajor