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Unit6MethodsofElevationDetermination(高程测量方法)Anelevationisaverticaldistanceaboveorbelowareferencedatum.(高程是高于或低于一个参考基准的一个垂直距离。)Althoughverticaldistancecanbereferencedtoanydatum,insurveying,thereferencedatumthatisuniversallyemployedisthatofmeansealevel(MSL).(虽然垂直距离可以参考任何一个基准,但是在测量上,这个参考基准一般使用的是平均海平面(MSL))MSLisassignedaverticalvalue(elevation)of0.000ftor0.000m.(MSL被赋予一个0.000英尺或0.000米的高程)Allotherpointsontheearthcanbedescribedbytheelevationsaboveorbelowzero.(地球上所有其它点可以用高于或低于0的高程来描述)Permanentpointswhoseelevationshavebeenpreciselydetermined(benchmarks)areavailableinmostareasforsurveyuse.(高程精确测出的永久点(水准点)被用于大多数区域的测量工作)InChina,7yearsofobservationsattidalstationsinQingdaofrom1950to1956werereducedandadjustedtoprovidetheHuanghaiverticaldatumof1956.(在中国,利用青岛验潮站从1950年到1956年7年的观测数据处理和平差,建立了56黄海高程系统)Inthe1987,thisdatumwasfurtherrefinedtoreflectlongperiodicaloceantidechangetoprovideanewnationalverticaldatumof1985,accordingtotheobservationsattidalstationsfrom1952to1979.(1987年,在依照了验潮站1952到1979年的观测资料后,这个基准被进一步精确——反映长时期海潮变化的85国家高程基准建立起来。)Although,strictlyspeaking,thenationalverticaldatummaynotpreciselyagreewiththeMSLatspecificpointsontheearth’ssurface,thetermMSLisgenerallyusedtodescribethedatum.(虽然,严格说来,国家高程基准在特殊的点上与MSL并不恰好吻合,术语MSL一般还是用来描述它)MSLisassignedaverticalvalue(elevation)of0.000ftor0.000m.(MSL高程的赋值为0.000英尺或米)Differenceinelevationmaybemeasuredbythefollowingmethods:(JamesM.AndersonandEdwardM.Mikhail.1998)(高程的差异可以由下列方法测得(詹姆斯.安德森和爱德华.)1.Directorspiritleveling,bymeasuringverticaldistancesdirectly.(水准测量,直接测得垂直距离)Directlevelingismostprecisemethodofdeterminingelevationsandtheonecommonlyused.(水准测量是高程测量方法中精度最高、使用最普遍的方法)2.Indirectortrigonometricleveling,bymeasuringverticalanglesandhorizontalorslopedistances.(三角高程测量,利用测量竖直角和水平或斜距来测高程)3.Stadialeveling,inwhichverticaldistancesaredeterminedbytacheometryusingengineer’stransitandlevelrod;plane-tableandalidadeandlevelrod;orself-reducingtacheometerandlevelrod.(视距高程测量,利用视距测量,使用工程经纬仪和水准尺;平板仪和照准仪和水准尺;或者自处理视距仪和水准尺测得垂直距离)4.Barometricleveling,bymeasuringthedifferencesinatmosphericpressureatvariousstationsbymeansofabarometer.(气压水准测量,通过使用气压计测量不同站点大气压力的差值来测高程)5.Gravimetricleveling,bymeasuringthedifferencesingravityatvariousstationsbymeansofagravimeterforgeodeticpurposes.(重力水准测量,通过使用重力计测量不同站点的重力值差值来测高程,用于大地测量学的目的)6.Inertialpositioningsystem,inwhichaninertialplatformhastreemutuallyperpendicularaxes,oneofwhichis“up”,sothatthesystemyieldselevationasoneoftheoutputs.(惯性定位系统,含有一个惯性平台,具有三个互相垂直轴,其中一个是“向上”的,所以这个系统产生的输出其中一个就是高程。)Verticalaccuraciesfrom15to50cmindistancesof60and100km,respectively,havebeenreported.(各自地,据相关报告,在60和100km的距离上,其精度能达到15到50cm)Theequipmentcostisextremelyhighandapplicationsarerestrictedtoverylargeprojectswhereterrain,weather,time,andaccessimposespecialconstraintsontraditionalmethods.(这种装置成本极只限于高,非常大的项目,这些项目地质、气象、授时、以及??施加特殊限制在传统方法上)7.GPSsurveyelevationsarereferencedtotheellipsoidbutcanbecorrectedtothedatumifasufficientnumberofpointswithdatumelevationsarelocatedintheregionsurveyed.(GPS高程测量,它的参考面是地球椭球面,但是如果在测区有充分的高程点,可以修正至高程基准上来)Standarddeviationsinelevationdifferencesof0.053to0.094marepossibleundertheseconditions.(在这种情况下,其高差的标准差能够达到0.053到0.094米。Spiritleveling(水准测量)Themostprecisemethodofdeterminingelevationsandmostcommonlyusemethodisdirectlevelingorspiritlevelingwhichmeansmeasuringtheverticaldistancedirectly.(精度最高、使用最普遍的高程测量方法就是直接测垂直距离的水准测量方法)Differentiallevelingisusedtodeterminedifferencesinelevationbetweenpointsthatareremotefromeachotherbyusingasurveyor’sleveltogetherwithagraduatedmeasuringrod.(微差水准测量是利用测量者的水准仪【level水准仪、水平仪】和有刻度的尺来测定远距离的相隔点的高差)Forexample,todeterminetheelevationsofdesiredpointBwithrespecttoapointofknownelevationA(seeFigure1),theelevationofwhich(BM)isknowntobeabovesealevel,thelevelissetupatintermediatepointbetweenAandB,androdreadingsaretakenatbothlocationsasaandbrespectively.(例如,确定欲测关于点A的点B的高程,(如图1)点的高程已知(BM点),A,在A和B点之间的中点处安置水准尺,分别以a和b代表在这两处水准尺上的读数)Thentheelevationofthelineofsightoftheinstrument(beinghorizontal)isknown(那么仪器(整平后)的视线高程就是:HA+a)TheelevationofpointBcanbedeterminedbyequation(B点的高程可以由方程来确定)HB=HA+a-bInadditiontodeterminingtheelevationofpointB,theelevationsofanyotherpoints,lowerthanthelineofsightandvisiblefromthelevel,canbedeterminedinasimilarmanner.(除确定B点的高程之外,其它点的高程,低于视线的和水准仪可以看见的点,都可以以相似的方法得到。)Butsometermsshouldbementionedfromabove.(但是上面的一些术语需要提一下)aiscalledBacksight(BS)whichisarodreadingtakenonapointofknownelevationinordertoestablishtheelevationoftheinstrumentlineofsight.(a被称为Backsight,是一个放在已知高程点上的尺的读数,用来求得仪器视线的高程。)biscalledForesight(FS)whichisarodreadingtakenonaturningpoint,benchmark,ortemporarybenchmarkinordertodetermineitselevation.(b被称为Foresight,是一个放在转点、水准点、或者是临时水准点之上的尺的读数,用来确定该点的高程)HA+areferstotheHeightofInstrument(HI)whichistheelevationofthelineofsightthroughthelevel.(HA+a指的是仪器高度(HI),是过水准仪的视线的高程)Owingtorefraction,actuallythelineofsightisslightlycurved,theeffectsofcurvatureandrefractionforthehorizontaldistancecanbereducedtoanegligibleamountandnocorrectionforcurvatureandrefractionisnecessaryifbacksightandforesightdistancesarebalancedinpracticaloperation.(由于大气折光的缘故,实际上视线是有些弯曲的,曲率和折光的影响可以被当作可忽略的不必值,加入球气改正,如果在实际工作中后视距和前视距是相等的)TrigonometricLeveling(三角高程测量)Trigonometriclevelingisusedwheredifficultterrain,suchasmountainousareas,precludestheuseofconventionaldifferentialleveling.(三角高程测量适用于困难地形,例如在山区,不能使用常规的微差水准测量。)Themodernapproachistomeasuretheslopedistanceandverticalangletothepointinquestion.(现代的三角高程测量方法是测量到未知点的斜距和垂直角)Slopedistanceismeasuredusingelectromagneticdistancemeasurersandthevertical(orzenith)angleusingatheodolite,orthetotalstationthatintegratethesetwoinstrumentsintoasingleinstrument.(斜距由电磁波测距仪测得,垂直角(或天顶距)由经纬仪测得,或者利用整合了这两种仪器为一体的全站仪来测)Totalstationscontainbuilt-inmicroprocessorsthatcalculateanddisplaythehorizontaldistancefromthemeasuredslopedistanceandverticalheight.(全站仪包含了内置的微处理器,用来根据测得的斜距和垂直角计算和显示水平距离)Thislatterfacilityhasresultedintrigonometricallevelingbeingusedforawidevarietyofheightingprocedures,includingcontouring.(这种后来的设备导致了三角高程测量被广泛用于多种高度测量工作,包括测绘等高线ThebasicconceptoftrigonometricallevelingcanbeseenfromFigure2.(三角高程测量的基本原理可以看图2)WhenmeasuringtheverticalangleαandthehorizontaldistanceSisused,thenthedifferenceinelevationhABbetweengroundpointsAandBistherefore:(当我们用α和S分别表示垂直角和水平距离时,A点和B点之间的高差为:)hAB=S×tanα+i–vwhereiistheverticalheightofthemeasuringcenteroftheinstrumentaboveAandvistheverticalheightofthecenterofthetargetaboveB.(i是A点上仪器中心的高度,v是B点上目标中心的垂直高度)Theverticalanglesarepositiveforanglesofelevationandnegativeforanglesofdepression.(垂直角为仰角时为正,俯角时为负)Thezenithanglesarealwayspositive,butnaturallywhengreaterthan90°theywillproduceanegativeresult.(天顶距总是正的,但是自然的当超过了90°时,它们将产生一个相反的结果)Trigonometricallevelingmethodofdeterminingdifferenceinelevationislimitedtohorizontaldistancelessthan300mwhenmoderateprecisionissufficient,andtoproportionatelyshorterdistancesashighprecisionisdesired.(普通【精度要求下,三角高程测量方法测高差水平距离不能超过300m,如果要求高的精度,则要相应缩短距离。)Forthedistancebeyond300mtheeffectsofcurvatureandrefractionmustbeconsideredandapplied.(因为超过300m时,地球曲率和折光影响必需考虑)Toeliminatetheuncertaintyinthecurvatureandrefractioncorrection,vertical-angleobservationsaremadeatbothendsofthelineascloseinpointoftimeaspossible.(为了消除地球曲率和折光改正的不确定因素,垂直角观测时应采用在观测方向两端尽量同时相向观测的方法。对向观测Thispairofobservationsistermedreciprocalvertical-angleobservation.(这种观测称为垂直角对向观测)Thecorrectdifferenceinelevationbetweenthetwoendsofthelineisthemeanofthetwovaluescomputedbothwayseitherwithorwithouttakingintoaccountcurvatureandrefraction(线两端正确的高程之差是计算得到的两高程值的平均值,不管计算有无考虑球气差.)Theimportantnotesshouldbementionedhereisthatsurveyorsusedtoworkingwithspiritlevelshavereferencedorthometricheights(H)tothe“average”surfaceoftheearth,asdepictedbyMSL.(这里需要注意的是,测量者在水准测量工作中使用的是参考地球“平均”表面的正高正高,这个平均表面描述为正高MSL)However,theelevationcoordinate(h)givenbyGPSsolutionsreferstotheheightfromthesurfaceoftheellipsoidtothegroundstation.(然而,GPS方法给出的是地球椭球面到地面站的大地高UNIT7RoboticTotalStationAlate1980sadaptionofthetotalstationistheadditionofservomotorstodriveboththehorizontalandtheverticalmotionsoftheseinstruments.(80年代末,全站仪改进【adaption改变、改写】是加入伺服【servo】电动机【motor】,用以驱动仪器的水平和垂直移动【motion】)Forallthecomplexelectronicsinsidearobotictotalstation,themotionisstillprovidedbysimpleservomotorswithareductiongearsystem.(在智能型全站仪内所有的复杂的电子元件,它们的活动仍然是由简单的带有一个变速【reduction变速、减速】齿轮系统的伺服电动机提供的)Theendresultmustbelightweight,durableandfastandhavesub-secondpositioningaccuracy.(最终结果必定是,质量轻【原文应该是lightweight,中间有空格;lightweight的意思是轻量级选手、不胜任者】,耐用的和快速的、有着亚秒级定位精度的)

Whenthosetotalstationshavebeendesignedwithautomatictargetrecognition(ATR)function,theyallowtheusertoautomaticallytrack,measureandrecordtargets.(当带有自动目标识别功能【automatictargetrecognition】的全站仪被设计出后,自动跟踪【track】、测量和记录目标得以实现。)Currenttechnologyprovidesrobotic(motorized)totalstationsthatareabletomeasureangleswithanaccuracyof±0.5″anddistanceswithanaccuracyof±1mm+1ppmtoarangeof3500m.(当前的技术能够使智能型全站仪在3500m的范围内的测角精度达到±0.5″,测距精度达到±1mm+1ppm)Latestmodelsarecapableofsearchingautomaticallyfortargetsandthenlockingontothemprecisely,turninganglesautomaticallytodesignatedpointsusingtheuploadedcoordinatesofthosepoints,repeatinganglesbyautomaticallydouble-centering,andevenequippedwithautomaticdatatransfersystems.(最近的样式可以自动搜寻目标并将其精确锁定,自动转角到指定【designated】点——利用上载的【uploaded】这些点的坐标,通过自动两次置中复测角度,甚至装备了自动数据转换系统)Theseinstruments,whencombinedwitharemotecontrollerheldbytheprismsurveyor,enablethesurveytoproceedwithareducedneedforpersonnel.(这种仪器,当与一个可被持镜【prism棱镜】测量者持有的遥控装置【remotecontroller遥控装置】结合后,测量工作就可以减少人员【personnel人员n.】的需要)Allthesecharacteristicsmaketherobotictotalstationsveryusefulforgeomaticsengineeringtasks.(所有这些特性使得智能型全站仪在测绘工程任务当中非常有用)

UsingarobotictotalstationwithATR,first,thetelescopemustbepointedroughlyatthetargetprism—eithermanuallyorundersoftwarecontrol—andthentheinstrumentdoestherest.(使用带有ATR的智能型全站仪时,首先,望远镜必需大致地【roughly粗略地】照准目标棱镜——或者手工【manually用手adv.】或者软件控制——然后省下的就交给仪器去做了)TheATRmoduleisadigitalcamerathatnotestheoffsetofthereflectedlaserbeam,permittingtheinstrumentthentomoveautomaticallyuntilthecrosshairshaveelectronicallysetonthepointprecisely.(ATR模块是一个数字照相机,可以记录【note】反射激光束的偏移量【offset】,使得【permit使……有可能】仪器能够自动移动【转动】,直至十字丝电子的调整到正好【precisely】照准那个点)Afterthepointhasbeenprecisely“sighted”,theinstrumentcanthenreadandrecordtheangleanddistance.(当该点被正好“看到”,仪器就可以读出并记录角度和距离)Reportsindicatethatthetimerequiredthisprocessisonlyone-thirdtoone-halfofthetimerequiredtoobtainthesameresultsbyconventionaltotalstationtechniques.(有报告指出【indicate】,该过程所需时间仅是使用常规【conventional常规的、传统的】全站仪获得同样结果所需时间的一半或三分之一)UNIT8ErrorsinMeasurementMeasurementsaredefinedasobservationsmadetodetermineunknownquantities.(测量被定义为确定未知量【quantity】的观测)Theymaybeclassifiedaseitherdirectorindirect.(它们可以被分为直接观测和间接观测)Adirectmeasurementisonewherethereadingobservedrepresentsthequantitymeasured,withoutaneedtoadd,takeaveragesorusegeometricformulastocomputethevaluedesired.(直接观测就是观测读数即代表了【represent代表、描述】测量量,不需要另外加、取平均或利用几何【geometric几何的】公式【formulas】来计算出所需【desired想得到的】值。)Determiningthedistancebetweentwopointsbymakingadirectmeasurementusingagraduatedtapeisanexampleofdirectmeasurement.(用一把刻度尺直接确定两点之间的距离,就是一个直接观测的例子)Anindirectmeasurementrequirescalculationandcanbedeterminedfromitsmathematicalrelationshiptodirectmeasurementswhenitisnotpossibleorpracticaltomakedirectmeasurements.(间接观测需要计算,当直接观测是不可能或不实际【practical实际的】时,可以利用它与直接观测量之间的数学关系来确定。)Forexample,stationcoordinatescanbemathematicallycomputedbymeasuringanglesandlengthsoflinesbetweenpointsdirectly.(例如,测点【station测点】坐标可以由直接测得的点之间直线的角度和长度来计算)Thereforetheindirectmeasurements(computedstationcoordinates)containerrorsthatwerepresentintheoriginaldirectobservationsandpropagated(distributed)bythecomputationalprocess.(因此,这个间接测量值(计算出的测点坐标)包含了初始【original】直接观测出现【present】的和由计算过程传播【propagate】(散播的)的误差。)【that后面全都是修饰errors的】Thisdistributionoferrorsisknownaserrorpropagation.(这种误差的散播被认为【beknownas被称为】误差传播)Also,itistheindirectnatureofmeasurementsthatforcestheneedtooftenapplysomerathersophisticatedmathematicalprocedurestoanalysisoferrorsandthusdeterminea“bestvalue”torepresentthesizeofthequantity.(同样,间接测量的特性需要【forcestheneedto使……成为需要】经常应用一些更复杂的数学方法【procedure】来分析误差并从而确定“最佳值”来代替【represent代替、代表、扮演、表现】测量值的大小)2.SystematicErrors.(系统误差)SystematicErrorsaredefinedasthoseerrorswhosemagnitudeandalgebraicsigncanbecalculatedandappliedasacorrectiontothemeasuredquantity,ortheseerrorsfollowsomephysicallawandthuscanbepredicted.(系统误差定义为,大小【magnitude】和符号【algebraicsign代数符号】上可以被计算,并当作修正值应用在测量量上,或者说这些误差遵循某些自然法则【physicallaw】因而可以被预知【predicte】)Somesystematicerrorsareremovedbysomecorrectmeasurementprocedures(e.g.,balancingbacksightandforesightdistancesindifferentiallevelingtocompensateforearthcurvatureandrefraction).(有些系统误差可以由某些恰当的测量程序来消除(举例来说【e.g.举例来说】,在微差水准测量中使前后视距相等来低偿【compensate】地球曲率和折光)Othersareremovedbyderivingcorrectionsbasedonthephysicalconditionsthatwereresponsiblefortheircreation(e.g.,applyingacomputedcorrectionforearthcurvatureandrefractiononatrigonometriclevelingobservation).(有些【others和some对比使用时,是“有些”的意思而不是做“其他”讲】系统误差则是利用推出【derive得来、得出、推出】改正值来消除,【basedon后面是讲改正值怎么得到】改正值是基于它们产生的原因的物理条件推出)

Surveyorsshouldknowhowtodealwithsystematicerrors.(测量者应该知道怎样处理体统误差)Thefirstrequirementistorecognizeandacceptthepossibleexistenceoferrors.(第一个要求是认可并承认误差的存在可能性)Next,identifythevarioussourcesthatmightbeaffectingareadingsystematically,then,determinewhatthe“system”is.(接下来,辨别可能系统地影响到读数的不同的来源,然后确定这个“系统”是什么【是什么在系统的影响读数】。)Isitaconstant,linear,orinproportiontothesizeofthequantitybeingmeasured?Or,doesitfollowsomeothermathematicalrelationship?Istheresomephysicsinvolved?(它是常量【constant】?是线性的【linear】?还是和被测量的大小成比例【inproportionto】?还是,它遵循其它一些数学关系?和物理过程有关吗?)Oncesystematicerrorsdiscoveredandquantified,theerrorscanbeessentiallycompensatedbycertainprocessesofmeasuringorcorrectedtoreducetheireffect.(一旦系统误差被发现和量化【quantify】,误差就可以得到实质的【essentially实质地】低偿,【by后面是低偿的方法】利用某一【certain某一个】测量过程或者修正来减少它们的影响)Carefulcalibrationofallinstrumentsisanessentialpartofcontrollingsystematicerrors.(仪器的仔细的校准【calibration校准n.】,是控制系统误差的本质的一方面)3.RandomErrors.(随即误差)Random(alsoknownasaccident)errorsareintroducedintoeachmeasurementmainlybecauseofhumanandinstrumentimperfectionsaswellasuncertaintiesindeterminingtheeffectsoftheenvironmentonmeasurements.(随机(也叫偶然)误差引入每个测量工作中,主要因为人和仪器的不完美性,如同环境对测量工作的影响的不确定性)Afterallmistakesandsystematicerrorshavebeenremovedfromthemeasuredvalues,therandomerrorsremain.(在所有的错误和系统误差被移除出测量值后,剩下的就是随机误差)Ingeneral,randomerrorsareunavoidableandrelativelysmall.(通常【Ingeneral】,随即误差是不可避免的并且相对较小)Theyusuallydonotfollowanyphysicallaw,butfollowrandompatterns,orthelawsof“chance”.(它们通常并不遵循任何物理法则,但却遵循随机模式【pattern模式、式样】,或概率法则)Theyhaveunknownsignsandareaslikelytobenegativeorpositive.(它们符号不可知,可能是正或是负)Themagnitudeofsuchanerrorisunknown,butitcanbedealtwithandestimatedaccordingtothemathematicallawsofprobability.(这样的【such】误差的大小【magnitude】未知,但是可以依照【accordingto】数学的概率论【lawsofprobability概率论】来处理和估计【estimate】)Examplesofrandomerrorsare(a)imperfectcenteringoveragroundpointduringdistancemeasurementwithanEDMinstrument,(b)bubblenotcenteredattheinstantalevelrodisread,and(c)smallerrorsinreadinggraduatedscales.(随机误差的例子如(a)在使用EDM测距时没有完全【imperfect有缺点的、未完成的】对中地面点,(b)在水准尺上读数时【attheinstant在……时】气泡没有居中(c)读刻度尺时的小误差)Unit9BasicStatisticalAnalysisofRandomErrors(随机误差的统计学基本分析)Randomerrorsarethosevariablesthatremainaftermistakesaredetectedandeliminatedandallsystematicerrorshavebeenremovedorcorrectedfromthemeasuredvalues.(随机误差是在错误被察觉【detect】和消除【eliminate】后,并且所有系统误差被从测量值中移除或修正后,保留下的那些变量【variable变量、变化n.】)Theyarebeyondthecontroloftheobserver.(它们是观测者无法控制的)Sotherandomerrorsareerrorstheoccurrenceofwhichdoesnotfollowadeterministicpattern.(因此随机误差是不遵循某个确定性【deterministic确定性的】模式【pattern】而发生的误差)Inmathematicalstatistics,theyareconsideredasstochasticvariables,anddespitetheirirregularbehavior,thestudyofrandomerrorsinanywell-conductedmeasuringprocessorexperimenthasindicatedthatrandomerrorsfollowthefollowingempiricalrules:(在数理统计【mathematicalstatistics】中,它们被当成随机变量【stochasticvariable】,尽管它们的行为无规律,在任一正确的【well-conducted原意为品行端正的,这里指测量实验和活动是无误的】测量活动和实验中,对的随机误差的研究显示【indicate】随机误差遵循以下经验法则【empiricalrule】:)=1\*GB2⑴Arandomerrorwillnotexceedacertainamount.(随即误差不会超过一个确定的值)=2\*GB2⑵Positiveandnegativerandomerrorsmayoccuratthesamefrequency.(正负误差出现的频率相同)=3\*GB2⑶Errorsthataresmallinmagnitudearemorelikelytooccurthanthosethatarelargerinmagnitude.(误差数值【magnitude量值、大小】小的比数值大的误差出现可能性大【belikelyto可能】)=4\*GB2⑷Themeanofrandomerrorstendstozeroasthesamplesizetendstoinfinite.(当【as】样本大小【samplesize】趋近于无穷【infinite】时,随机误差的平均值趋近于0)Inmathematicalstatistics,randomerrorsfollowstatisticalbehaviorallawssuchasthelawsofprobability.(在数理统计中,随机误差遵循统计学的【statistical】行为【behavioral行为的】规律,如概率法则)Acharacteristictheoreticalpatternoferrordistributionoccursuponanalysisofalargenumberofrepeatedmeasurementsofaquantity,whichconformtonormalorGaussiandistribution.(发生在一个量的大量重复观测分析【analysisn.】中的误差分布的一个特征理论模式,遵照【conformto遵照】正态或高斯分布)【在对一个量进行大量重复观测分析后,得到一个误差分布的理论特征——正态或高斯分布】Theplotoferrorsizesversusprobabilitieswouldapproachasmoothcurveofthecharacteristicbell-shape.(误差大小与【versus与、与……的关系、与……相对】概率的关系图,接近一条光滑的特有的【characteristic特有的】钟形曲线。)Thiscurveisknownasthenormalerrordistributioncurve.(这条曲线被称为正态分布曲线)Itisalsocalledtheprobabilitydensityfunctionofanormalrandomvariable.(也叫做正态随机变量【normalrandomvariable】的概率密度【probabilitydensity】函数)Itisimportanttonoticethatthetotalareaoftheverticalbarsforeachplotequals1.(需特别注意的是,每个图的条形图总面积为1。)Thisistruenomatterthevalueofn(thenumberofsinglecombinedmeasurements),andthustheareaunderthesmoothnormalerrordistributioncurveisequalto1.(无论【nomatter】n(单一的联合的测量数目【独立观测数】)是多少,在光滑的误差正态分布曲线下的面积都是1。)Ifaneventhasaprobabilityof1,itiscertaintooccur,andthereforetheareaunderthecurverepresentsthesumofalltheprobabilitiesoftheoccurrenceoferrors.(如果一件事的概率为1,它一定会发生,因此曲线下方的面积代表了所有误差发生的概率。)Anumberofpropertiesthatrelatearandomvariableanditsprobabilitydensityfunctionareusefulinourunderstandingofitsbehavior.(有许多工具【property】与随机变量和它的概率密度函数有关,有助于我们理解它的行为)Meanandstandarddeviationaretwomostpopularstatisticalpropertiesofarandomvariable.(平均值和标准偏差就是两个最常用的随机变量的统计工具【property】)Generally,arandomvariablewhichisnormallydistributedwithameanandstandarddeviationcanbewritteninsymbolformasN(μ,σ2).(一般地,一个通常由平均值和标准偏差描述的随机变量可以用符号【symbol】表示为N(μ,σ2)。Theycanbeexplainedasfollows.(【它们可以】解释如下)Mean:Themostcommonlyusedmeasureofcentraltendencyisthemeanofasetofdata(asample).(平均值:最普遍应用的中心趋向的估计【measure】就是一系列数据(一个样本)的平均值)Theconceptofmeanreferstothemostprobablevalueoftherandomvariable.(平均值的概念【concept】涉及到随机变量的最或是值)Itisalsocalledbyanyoftheseveralterms—expectation,expectedvalue,meanoraverage.(还可以由其它几个术语来称呼它——期望、预期值、平均值或平均值)Themeanisdefinedas(平均值定义为)Wherexiaretheobservations,nisthesamplesize,ortotalnumberofobservationsinthesample,andxisthemeanwhichisalsocalledmostprobablevalue(MPV).(xi是观测值,n是样本大小,或者叫样本内观测值的总数,x是平均值,经常被称为最或是值(MPV)TheMPVistheclosestapproximationtothetruevaluethatcanbeeasilyachievedfromasetofdata.(MPV是最接近真值的近似值【approximation】,可以很容易由一系列数据得到。)Itcanbeshownthatthearithmeticmeanofasetofindependentobservationsisanunbiasedestimateofthemeanμofthepopulation.(可以看出【Itcanbeshownthat】一系列独立【independent】观测值的算数平均值【arithmeticmean】是一个样本【population】的期望值μ的无偏估计【unbiasedestimate】。)Standarddeviationisanumericalvalueindicatingtheamountofvariationaboutacentralvalue.(标准偏差是一个数值【numericalvalue】,指示【indicate】相对于中值的偏离)Inordertoappreciatetheconceptuponwhichindices【index的复数】ofprecisiondevolveonemustconsiderameasurethattakesintoaccountallthevaluesinasetofdata.(考虑一系列数据的所有值精度指标必需顾及一个量,这个量考虑到【takesintoaccount考虑】一组【asetof】数据的所有值)Suchameasureisthedeviationfromthemeanxofeachobservedvaluexii.e.(xi-x),andthemeanofthesquaresofthedeviationsmaybeused,andthisiscalledthevarianceσ2,(这个量是每个观测值xi相对于平均值x的离差【deviation】,也就是,(xi-x),离差的平方的平均值被采用,称之为方差σ2)Whereμisthemean(expectation)ofthepopulation.(这里μ是对象总体【样本】的平均值(期望值)。)Thesquarerootofthevarianceiscalledstandarddeviationσ.(方差的平方根被称为标准差σ)Theoreticallythestandarddeviation,whichisthevalueontheXaxisoftheprobabilitycurvethatoccursatthepointsofinflecxion【估计应为inflexions拐点】ofthecurve,isobtainedfromaninfinitenumberofvariablesknownasthepopulation.(理论上标准差,是概率曲线拐点的X轴坐标,由无穷多的变量(被称为样本)得到)Inpractice,however,onlyasampleofvariablesisavailableandSisusedasanunbiasedestimator.(然而,实际上,只有变量的样本是可以利用的,S被称为无偏【unbiased】估计【estimator估计、估计者】。)Accountistakenofthesmallnumberofvariablesinthesamplebyusing(n-1)asthedivisor,whichisreferredtoinstatisticsastheBesselcorrection;hence,varianceis(样本中有限的【small小的】变量的计算,用n-1作为除数【divisor除数、约数】,在统计学中称之为白塞尔修正;因此,变化【variance变化、不一致n.】如下:)Toobtainanindexofprecisioninthesameunitsastheoriginaldata,thereforethesquarerootofthevarianceisused,andthisalsocalledthestandarddeviationS.(为了获得与源数据一样单位的精度指标,方差的平方根被采用,又叫做标准差S)Thestandarddeviationisthemeasureofthedispersionorspreadoftherandomvariable.(标准差是随机变量的离差或离散的量度标准。)Asurveymeasurement,suchasadistanceorangle,aftermistakesareeliminatedandsystematicerrorscorrected,isarandomvariable.(一个测量值,例如距离或角度,在错误被去除、系统误差被修正后,就是一个随机变量。)Ifadistanceismeasured20times,itisnotunusualtogetvaluesforeachofthemeasurementsthatdifferslightlyfromitstruevaluethatisneverknown.(如果一段距离被测了20次,每次的测量值与永远未知的真值有些微的差值是很正常的)Soowingtorandomvariability,anerrorwasdefinedasthedifferencebetweenarandomvariable,themeasuredvalue(observation)andtheconstant,thetruevaluei.e.error=measuredvalue.(因此,由于【owingto】随机可变性,误差被定义为随机变量、测量值和常量之间的差值,也就是,误差=测量值【-常量,这里估计是掉了】。)Andacorrection(residual),whichisthenegativeoftheerrorinpractice,wasdefinedascorrectionbetweentheMPVandmeasuredvaluei.e.correction=MPV-measuredvalue.(改正值,习惯上【inpractice】是误差的负值,定义为MPV和测量值之间的修正值,也就是改正值=MPV-测量值)Whentheso-calledtruevaluesareavailabletocomparewithcalculatedvalues,themeansquareerror(MSE)isgivenby(当所谓的真值可以与计算值相比较时,误差均方差(MSE)为:)Inwhichxiisthemeasuredvalue,xisthetruevalueandnisthenumberofmeasurements.(其中xi是测量值,x是真值,n是观测数)Propagationoferrors(orerrorpropagation):Muchdatainsurveyingisobtainedindirectlyfromvariouscombinationsofobservations.(误差传播:测量的许多数据是间接由各种测量值综合得到的【combination是名词,这里翻译时用到了词性转换】)Forinstancethecoordinatesofalineareafunctionofitslengthandbearing.(例如,一条直线的坐标就是其长度和方位的函数)Aseachmeasurementcontainsanerror,itisnecessarytoconsiderthecombinedeffectoftheseerrorsonthederivedquantity.(由于每项测量值都包含误差,必需考虑这些源数据的误差的联合影响)Errorpropagationisoneofthemanyaspectsofanalyzingerrors.(误差传播是误差分析的许多方面的其中一个)Itisthemathematicalprocessusedtoestimatetheexpectedrandomerrorinacomputedorindirectlymeasuredquantitycausedbyoneormoreidentifiedandestimatedrandomerrorsinoneormoreidentifiedvariablesthatinfluencetheprecisionofthequantity.(它是一个数学方法【process或者译为过程】,用来估计【estimate】在一个计算出的或间接测量的参量【quantity】中的期望随机误差【或偶然误差】,该参量是在一个或多个确定的【identified】变量中由一个或多个限定或确定的偶然误差引起的,影响该量的精度。)Thegeneralprocedureistodifferentiatewithrespecttoeachoftheobservedquantitiesinturnandsumthemtoobtaintheirtotaleffect.(一般的程序是取每个观测量的微分【differentiate求……微分】然后把它们加起来,来获得它们的总的影响)ThusifZ=f(x1,x2,…,xn),andeachindependentvariablechangesbyasmallamount(anerror)Δx1,Δx2,…Δxn,thenZwillchangebyasmallamountequaltoΔZ,obtainedfromthefollowingexpression:(这样,如果Z=f(x1,x2,…,xn),每个独立变量用一个小的量(误差)代换Δx1,Δx2,…Δxn,Z由一个小的量ΔZ代换,ΔZ由下面表达式得到:)inwhichisthepartialderivativeofZwithrespecttox,etc.(其中是Z对x的偏导数【partialderivative】,等等)Δisusedtoreplacethepartialsymbold.(Δ用来替代偏导符号d)Astheobservationsareconsideredindependentanduncorrelated,thevarianceσ2Zistherefore(假设观测值是独立和不相关的,方差σ2Z为:)whichisthegeneralequationforthevarianceofanyfunctionwhichiscalledtherationaleofErrorPropagation.(是任意函授的方差【variance】计算的普适方程,被称为误差传播【ErrorPropagation】定律【rationale基本原理】)Thisequationisveryimportantandisusedextensivelyinsurveyingforerroranalysis.(这个方程非常重要,在测量中广泛应用于误差分析)Unit10AccuracyandPrecision(准确度和精度)Canyoumakeameasurementthat’sveryprecise,butnotveryaccurate?(你能进行一项精度非常高,却不怎么准确的测量吗)Cananumberbeaccurate,butnotveryprecise?(一个量可以正确却不怎么精确吗)Let’sfindoutthedifferencebetweenthesetwoterms;you’llseethatprecisionandaccuracyarereallytwodifferentthings.(让我们来找出这两个术语的不同;你将会看到精度和准确度确实是两个不同的概念)Ameasurementcanbeprecisebutinaccurate,aswellasaccuratebutimprecise.(一个测量量可以是精确的但不准确,也可以是准确的但不精确。)Forexample,ifameasurementwasmadewithmuchcareusingahighlyrefinedinstrument,repeatedreadingsofthesamequantitywouldagreecloselyandthusprecisionwouldexist.(例如,如果一个测量量由仔细的利用高精密的【highlyrefined】仪器,对一个数重复读数得来,它们将非常一致,精度就存在了)Butiftheinstrumentcontainedoneormoreundetected,uncorrectedsystematicerrors,theresultswouldbein

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