英文 经合组织和欧盟国家的地方公共就业

OECDRegionalDevelopmentStudies

SubnationalPublicEmploymentinOECDandEUCountries

TakeawaysfromtheSUBEMPPilotDatabase

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SubnationalPublicEmploymentinOECDandEUCountries

TakeawaysfromtheSUBEMPPilotDatabase

Thisreportpresentsmethodologicalconsiderationsandmainfindingsfromthedevelopmentofapilotdatabaseonsubnationalpublic

employment(SUBEMP)forOECDandEUcountries.TheresultofajointOECD-ECproject,itaimstoprovidegranularinformationonthe

characteristics(gender,age,education,employmentconditions,

occupationandpolicyareas)ofsubnationalpublicsectoremployees,inordertoassesstheircapacityandpotentialtodeliverpublicservicesand

infrastructure.Thereportalsofeaturesguidelinestoassistthe

developmentofhigh-qualitycomparablesubnationalpublicemployment

data,outliningthemethodologicalchallengesandsuccessfactors,such

asstakeholderengagementanddatadisseminationstrategies.Itcloses

withasectiononavenuesforfurtherresearchandpotentialforexpandingthedatabaseinthefuture.

JELcodes:H7;C8;H83;R5;J45

Keywords:Stateandlocalgovernment,publicemployment,regionalgovernmentanalysis

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ABOUTTHEOECD

TheOECDisamulti-disciplinaryinter-governmentalorganisationwithmembercountrieswhichengagesinitsworkanincreasingnumberofnon-membersfromallregionsoftheworld.TheOrganisation’scoremissiontodayistohelpgovernmentsworktogethertowardsastronger,cleaner,fairerglobaleconomy.Throughitsnetworkofspecialisedcommitteesandworkinggroups,theOECDprovidesasettingwheregovernmentscomparepolicyexperiences,seekanswerstocommonproblems,identifygoodpractice,andco-ordinatedomesticandinternationalpolicies.Moreinformationavailable:.

ThisdocumentwasapprovedbytheRegionalDevelopmentPolicyCommitteebywrittenprocedureundercote[CFE/RDPC/(2024)20]on24October2024andpreparedforpublicationbytheOECDSecretariat.

ThispaperwasauthorisedforpublicationbyLamiaKamal-Chaoui,Director,CentreforEntrepreneurship,SMEs,RegionsandCities,OECD.

ThestatisticaldataforIsraelaresuppliedbyandundertheresponsibilityoftherelevantIsraeliauthorities.TheuseofsuchdatabytheOECDiswithoutprejudicetothestatusoftheGolanHeights,EastJerusalemandIsraelisettlementsintheWestBankunderthetermsofinternationallaw.

NotebytheRepublicofTürkiye:Theinformationinthisdocumentwithreferenceto“Cyprus”relatestothesouthernpartoftheIsland.ThereisnosingleauthorityrepresentingbothTurkishandGreekCypriotpeopleontheIsland.TürkiyerecognisestheTurkishRepublicofNorthernCyprus(TRNC).UntilalastingandequitablesolutionisfoundwithinthecontextoftheUnitedNations,Türkiyeshallpreserveitspositionconcerningthe“Cyprusissue”.

NotebyalltheEuropeanUnionMemberStatesoftheOECDandtheEuropeanUnion:TheRepublicofCyprusisrecognisedbyallmembersoftheUnitedNationswiththeexceptionofTürkiye.TheinformationinthisdocumentrelatestotheareaundertheeffectivecontroloftheGovernmentoftheRepublicofCyprus.

Thisdocument,aswellasanystatisticaldataandmapincludedherein,arewithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameofanyterritory,cityorarea.

ThisdocumentwasproducedwiththefinancialassistanceoftheEuropeanUnion.TheviewsexpressedhereincaninnowaybetakentoreflecttheofficialopinionoftheEuropeanUnion.

©OECD(2024)Coverimage:jonghoshin/GettyImagesPlus

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/licenses/by/4.0/

).

Attribution–youmustcitethework.

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Acknowledgments

ThisreportwasproducedbytheOECDCentreforEntrepreneurship,SMEs,RegionsandCities(CFE)ledbyLamiaKamal-Chaoui,Director.Itispartofthemulti-levelgovernanceProgrammeofWorfkoftheOECD’sRegionalDevelopmentPolicyCommittee.

TheprojectwascarriedoutwithfundingbytheEuropeanUnion´sDirectorate-GeneralforRegionalandUrbanPolicy(DGREGIO).

Thereportwasco-ordinatedbyAnttiMoisio,SeniorEconomistandIsidoraZapata,PolicyAnalystunderthesupervisionofIsabelleChatry,HeadofUnit,Decentralisation,SubnationalPublicFinanceandInfrastructure(DEFI),undertheRegionalDevelopmentandMulti-levelGovernance(RDG)Division,ledbyDorothéeAllain-Dupré,inCFE.ThereportwaswrittenbyBrendanIrish,JuniorPolicyAnalyst,CharlotteLafitte,PolicyAnalyst,AnttiMoisio,SeniorEconomist,andMargauxVincent,PolicyAnalyst(allCFE).ThereportincludessubstantialcontributionsfromMatthieuBerroneReyes,Consultant,AleksanderHeikkinen,DoctoralresearcherattheUniversityofHelsinki,MonikaKollar,intern(CFE),Rose-CamilleVincent,AssociateprofessorattheUtrechtUniversity,andIsidoraZapata,PolicyAnalyst(CFE).

TheOECDisgratefultoCarloGianelle,Seniorresearcherandprojectmanager,PasqualeD’Apice,EconomicAnalystandJorgeDuranLaguna,HeadofEconomicAnalysisandRegionalStatistics,and,attheEuropeanCommission(DGREGIO),andLewisDijkstra,TeamLeader,EuropeanCommission’sJointResearchCentre,fortheirexcellentcollaborationandextensiveeffortsthroughouttheimplementationoftheproject.TheOECDalsothanksNataliaNolanFlechafromtheOECDDirectorateforPublicGovernance(GOV),forhercollaborationinthepreliminaryphaseoftheproject.TheOECDwouldalsoliketothankallexpertsfromtheNationalStatisticalInstitutes,ministriesandvariousagenciesfromthecountriesinvolvedinthestudyfortheirsupportduringthedatacollectionprocess,thedataandinformationinputsandtheirfeedbackonvariousdraftversionsofthedatabases.Wethankallrespondentstothesurveysfortheyvaluablecomments.TheOECDalsoextendsitsthankstotheinternationalexperts,academicsandcountryrepresentativesthatparticipatedinthevirtualworkshopheldinDecember2022todiscussthefirststagesofdevelopmentoftheproject.

TheauthorsaregratefultoNadimAhmad,Deputy-DirectorinCFEforhisinsights,andtoexpertsinOECDStatisticsandDataDirectoratefortheirusefuladvice,helpandexpertiseinthecreationthedatabases.TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethecommentsandinputsreceivedfromtheDelegatesoftheOECDRegionalDevelopmentPolicyCommittee.

ThanksareextendedtoJackWatersinCFEforpreparingthereportforpublication.

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Tableofcontents

Acknowledgments3

ExecutiveSummary6

1Introduction9

2BuildingthePilotdatabaseonsubnationalpublicemployment11

2.1.Keydefinitionsrelatedtosubnationalpublicemployment11

2.2.Scopeandlimitationofthepilotdatabase15

2.3.DatacollectionstrategyfordevelopingSUBEMPandmainoutcomes16

2.4.StructureofthePilotSUBEMPdatabases23

2.5.Mainchallengesandmethodologicaltake-aways25

3SubnationalpublicemploymentintheOECDandEU:acomparative

analysis31

3.1.RecenttrendsonsubnationalstaffexpenditureacrosstheOECDandtheEU31

3.2.Keyfindingsonsubnationalpublicemploymentacrosslevelsofgovernment33

3.3.Exploringdisaggregateddataonsubnationalpublicemployment46

4Avenuesforfutureresearchandmethodologicalguidance55

4.1.Avenuesforfutureresearch55

4.2.Methodologicalguidanceforbetterdataonsubnationalpublicemployment56

References58

Notes59

AnnexA.Detailedtaxonomy60

AnnexB.Allocationofsubnationalresponsibilitiesincountriesincludedin

thesample68

AnnexC.Sourcesforsubnationalpublicemploymentdata80

FIGURES

Figure2.1.OECDdataqueries20

Figure2.2.HierarchyofvariablesincludedintheSUBEMPdatabase21

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Figure2.3.OverviewofAggregatedSUBEMPdatabase22

Figure2.4.AggregatedSUBEMPdatatable(extractforthestatesectorfor2021)23

Figure3.1.Shareofstaffexpenditureintotalregionalgovernmentandmunicipalgovernment

expenditure(2021)32

Figure3.2.Subnationalgovernmentstaffexpenditurebyfunctions(COFOG)(2021)33

Figure3.3.Municipalpublicemployeesper1000inhabitants,bygender34

Figure3.4.Regionalpublicemployeesper1000inhabitants,bygender35

Figure3.5.Shareoffemalepublicemployeesacrosslevelsofgovernment36

Figure3.6.Distributionofmunicipalpublicemployeesbyage37

Figure3.7.Distributionofregionalpublicemployeesbyage38

Figure3.8.Distributionofpublicemployeesbyeducationlevel39

Figure3.9.Distributionofpublicemployeesbyeducationlevelandbyfunctions(COFOG)40

Figure3.10.Distributionofpublicemploymentbyeducationlevelandbygender41

Figure3.11.Distributionofpublicemployeesbyworkinghours42

Figure3.12.Distributionofpublicemployeesbytypesofcontracts43

Figure3.13.Distributionofsubnationalpublicemployeesbyfunctionsofgovernment46

Figure3.14.Averagenumberofmunicipalemployeesandshareofwomen,bymunicipalsize47

Figure3.15.Numberofmunicipalpublicemployeesper1000inhabitants48

Figure3.16.Shareofwomenasa%oftotalmunicipalpublicemployees49

Figure3.17.PercentageoffemaleamongmunicipalgovernmentemployeesinMexicoand

Sweden50

Figure3.18.PercentageoffemaleamongmunicipalgovernmentmanagersinPortugalandChile

51

Figure3.19.Averagenumberofregionalpublicemployeesandshareofwomen,byregions’size

52

Figure3.20.Numberofregionalpublicemployeesper1000inhabitants53

Figure3.21.Shareofwomenintotalregionalpublicemployees54

TABLES

Table2.1.Overviewofsubnationalpublicemploymentdatabases’decompositionsinselected

countries17

Table2.2.VariablesincludedintheOECDtaxonomyonsubnationalpublicemployment18

Table2.3.Sampleofcountriesincludedinthedatabase23

Table2.4.Listofvariablescollectedbycountry,ataggregatedanddisaggregatedlevels25

TableAB.1.Mainresponsibilityofsubnationalgovernmentsbyfunctionalclassification68

TableAC.1.Sourcesforsubnationalpublicemploymentdata80

BOXES

Box2.1.Definitionsofsubnationalgovernments13

Box2.2.Definitionofpublicservicepersonnel14

Box2.3.Definitionsofaggregatedanddisaggregateddata15

Box2.4.Overviewoffunctionalclassificationsystemsforpublicemployees19

Box2.5.LabourForceSurveysversusNationalAccountstatistics27

Box2.6.Goodpracticesfordisseminationofsubnationalpublicemploymentdata30

Box3.1.Publicemploymentframeworks44

Box4.1.WaysforwardforenhancingthePilotSUBEMPdatabases57

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ExecutiveSummary

RationaleandmethodologyfordevelopingthePilotSUBEMPdatabases

ThePilotSubnationalPublicEmploymentdatabaseaimstoprovidegranularinformationonthecharacteristicsofsubnationalpublicsectoremployees(gender,age,education,employmentconditions,occupationandpolicyareas),toassesstheircapacityandpotentialtodeliverpublicservicesandinfrastructureandprovideguidanceontheneedsandgapsinhumanresourcesmanagementatthesubnationalgovernmentlevel.

•Thedatabaseincludesdatafor26countriesfromtheOECDandtheEU,includingeightfederalandquasi-federalcountriesand18unitarycountries,withdataforthelatestavailableyear(rangingfrom2018to2023dependingoneachcountry).

•Buildingonexistinginternationalnomenclatureofemploymentandeconomicactivities,aswellasaninventoryofpubliclyavailablesubnationalpublicemploymentdata,theOECDdevelopedapilottaxonomyofsubnationalpublicemployment.Theaimofthetaxonomyistocoverthebroadestrangeofcountriespossible,whileensuringcomparabilitythroughcommondenominators.

•Thedatabaseisstructuredaroundsevendimensionsthatprovideinformationonthecharacteristicsandworkingenvironmentofsubnationalpublicpersonnel,i.e.gender,age,education,conditionsofemployment,workinghours,occupation,andpolicyareasinwhichtheywork(e.g.coreservices,healthoreducation).Theseemploymentspecificitiesdiffergreatlyacrosscountriesdependingonthewaytheseservicesareprovided,significantlyimpactingthelevelsofpublicemployment.However,notalldimensionsareavailableforallcountries.

•Genderisthemostwidespreaddimensioninsubnationalpublicemploymentdata.12countrieshavedataonsubnationalpublicemploymentwiththegenderdimensionatbothaggregatedanddisaggregatedlevels;additional8countrieshavesuchdataonlyattheaggregatedlevel,andonly6countriesdonotprovidethegenderdimensioninthesubnationalpublicemploymentdata.

•Thesecondmostcommoncategoryofdataavailableisclassificationbypolicyarea,orfunctionofgovernment(distinguishingbetweenemployeesinthehealthandeducationsectors,andothersectors),whichexistsfor11countriesattheaggregatedlevel.

•Classificationsbyage,occupation,employmentconditionandtimeequivalencewerefoundinninecountriesattheaggregatedlevel,andineightcountriesforeducationlevel.

•Finland,SwedenandBelgiumstandoutfromthesampleofcountrieswithdetaileddata,encompassingfourcategoriesormore,atthedisaggregatedlevel,i.e.forindividualsubnationalgovernments.

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Methodologicalchallengesandconsiderationsrelativetosubnationalpublicemploymentspecificities:

•ThesystemsandstructuresofsubnationalpublicemploymentvarysignificantlyacrossOECDandEUcountries,duetovariousdefinitionsofpublicservicepersonnel(encompassingcivilservantsandpublicemployees),butalsotodifferencesinthescopeofsubnationalgovernmentresponsibilitiesandtheoutsourcingofservicesatthesubnationallevel,limitingtheabilitytocomparesubnationalemploymentstatisticsacrosscountries.

•Theresponsibilitiesdevolvedtosubnationalgovernmentsvarywidelybetweencountries,affectingthedistributionofstaffamongdifferentgovernmentfunctions.Inparticular,thereisanenormousvariabilityacrosscountriesinthewayeducationandhealthservicesareorganisedanddeliveredacrosslevelsofgovernments.Onthecontrary,generalpublicservicesfunctionsandotherfunctionssuchaspublicorderandsafetyareorganisedinamorehomogeneouswayacrosscountriesandrepresentthecoresubnationalpublicadministrationactivities.

•Countriescollectdataonsubnationalpublicemploymenttoserveavarietyofpolicyobjectivesandtargets,resultingindifferencesintermsofmethodology,periodicityandtypeofdatacollected,andhinderingcomparabilityacrosscountries.Otherlimitationsarisefrompersonaldataprotectionobligations,especiallyinsmall-sizegovernmententities,andconfidentialityofdataonsalaries/remunerationsinsomecountries,whichmakesuchdatanotpubliclyavailableinmanycountries.

•ThepilottaxonomydevelopedbytheOECDwasbuilttoovercomethesechallengesandlimitations,anditwillcontinuetoevolveascountriesimplementitandrecommendwaystoimprovethistoolformoreaccuratedatacollection.

SubnationalpublicemploymentintheOECDandEU:acomparativeanalysis

Staffexpenditureattheregionalandmunicipalgovernmentlevels:

•Staffexpendituresrepresentatleast20%oftotalregionalandmunicipalgovernmentexpenditureforthemajorityofthe35countrieswithavailabledata,beingtheprimaryexpenditureitemformunicipalities(30.3%onaveragein2021)andthesecondlargestforregional/stategovernments(23.3%),aftercurrentgrantsandsubsidies.

•Educationandhealthsectorsaremajorareasofsubnationalstaffexpenditure,witheducationaccountingfor34%andhealthfor15%oftotalstaffexpenditureacrosssubnationalgovernments,in2021,onaveragefor32OECDandEUcountries.Therearestrongvariationsacrosscountries,withtheeducationsectoraccountingforupto56%ofsubnationalgovernmentstaffexpenditureinIsraeland57%inSlovenia,andthehealthsectoraccountingfor57%ofsubnationalgovernmentstaffexpenditureinItaly.

Demographicdistribution:

•Atthemunicipallevel,fourcountrieshavebetween80and100publicemployeesper1

000inhabitants(Finland,LithuaniaandDenmark),threecountrieshavebetween25and60(Sweden,SwitzerlandandBelgium),threecountrieshavebetween8and17(Spain,Portugal,France,CanadaandMexico)andsixcountrieshavefiveorless(Italy,Korea,Estonia,Chile,MaltaandCostaRica).

•Attheregionallevel,Belgiumhas47publicemployeesper1000inhabitants,thenfourcountrieshavebetween20and31publicemployeesper1000inhabitants(Spain,

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Switzerland,Denmark,andSweden),twocountrieshavebetween8and11(Canada,Mexico),andsixcountrieshavefourorless(Portugal,France,Italy,Korea,NorwayandMalta).

•TheNordiccountries,notablyFinland,SwedenandDenmark,havethehighestshareofwomeninthesubnationalpublicworkforce(respectively81.7%,77.1%and77.0%).ThelowestsharesofwomenamongpublicemployeesareencounteredinCostaRica(28.8%atthemunicipallevel),Chile(44%)andMexico(46.8%,encompassinglocalandstategovernments%)

•ThelargeshareoffemaleemployeesatthesubnationallevelintheNordiccountriesisalignedwithdataatthenationallevel,whiletheshareoffemalesatsubnationallevelislowerthanatthenationallevelinCostaRica,Chile,andMexico.Someofthesedifferencescanbeattributedtothediverseresponsibilitiesofsubnationalgovernmentsinthesecountries.

•Lookingattrendsforindividualmunicipalitieswithincountries,theratioofpublicemployeesperinhabitantislowerforlargermunicipalitieswithmorethan60000inhabitants,comparedtosmaller-sizemunicipalities.

•Lookingatindividualregionalgovernmentsacrossthecountriescoveredwithvaryinglevelsofresponsibility,theaveragenumberofemployeesandtheshareofwomenrangefrom28employeesonaverage(ofwhich72%arewomen)forregionswithlessthan500000inhabitants,to18employeesonaverage(ofwhich54%arewomen)forregionswithmorethan2millioninhabitants.

•Agedistributiondatarevealsamixofyoungerandolderemployees.Atmunicipallevel,Belgiumleadswiththehighestpercentageofworkersunder34(over50%),whilePortugal,Sweden,Finland,Israel,andEstoniahavebetween30%and40%oftheirworkforceover55.

Educationlevels:

•Variationineducationalattainmentacrosssubnationalpublicemployeesispartiallyexplainedbydifferingcompetencies,withsomecountrieslikePortugalshowingahighpercentageofmunicipalemployeeswithgraduate-leveleducation(71%).CostaRicaalsohasahighlyeducatedmunicipaladministration,with67%ofemployeeshavinggraduateleveleducation.Conversely,inmunicipalitiesinFinland,Sweden,andDenmark,only23%,18%,and8%ofpublicemployeesrespectivelyhavegraduateleveleducation.

•Theshareofwomenwithoutahighereducationdegree(undergraduateorabove)isbelowtheshareofmeninCostaRicaandIsrael.Conversely,itissimilarorslightlyhigherinDenmark,Estonia,Finland,andPortugal.

Employmentconditions:

•Mostsubnationalpublicemployeesworkfull-time,withsomeexceptions,forexample33%ofpublicemployeesofLänderinGermanyand17%ofmunicipalpublicemployeesinItalyareemployedpart-time.

•Asubstantialsegmentoftheworkforceatthemunicipallevelisemployedundercivilservicelaw,particularlyincountrieslikeFrance,Portugal,andMalta(over70%),underscoringtheimportanceofjobsecurityandbenefitsinthehiringpracticesofsubnationalgovernmentinthesecountries.

•Incontrast,Chileexhibitsadifferentemploymentapproachwithalargerelianceonothertypesofmodalities(e.g.temporary,fixed-termorhonorary).

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1Introduction

Subnationalgovernmentsarekeyactorsintoday’scomplexgeopoliticalandeconomicenvironment.Inatimeoftransformativechangesforpublicadministrations,decentralisationprocesseshavedevolvedfurtherresponsibilitiestosubnationalgovernmentsinkeyareassuchaspublicservicesandinfrastructureinvestment.Theyarestrategicallyplacedtoimplementplace-basedsolutionstomajorchallengessuchasthegreenanddigitaltransitions.

Subnationalgovernmentsemployasubstantialproportionofthetotalpublicworkforce,onaverage,withintheOECDandtheEU.OECDdataatthenationallevel,whichisbasedontheInternationalLabourOrganisation´s(ILO)ILOSTATdatabase,showsthat,in2019,employeesatthesubnationalgovernmentlevelmadeupmorethanhalfofallgeneralgovernmentemployees.SubnationalgovernmentemployeesalsoaccountforalargeshareoftotalpublicemployeesinsomeunitarycountriessuchasFinland,NorwayorSweden.Incontrast,countriessuchasIreland,IsraelandTürkiye,tendtohavealowshareofsubnationalgovernmentpublicemployees(OECD,2021[1]).

Giventheirsignificantrole,itisessentialtogainadeeperunderstandingofsubnationalpublicemployees-focusingontheirdemographics,genderandagedistribution,employmentconditions,andcapabilities-astheyarethed