政治语篇中的语用学策略毕业论文

-13-carriesheavierweightandismorepowerfuloncertainoccasioninexplainingwhyspeakersoftenbreachtheconversationalmaximsandconveyindirectlytheforceoftheirutterance.Chapter4ResultsandAnalysis4.1PragmaticStrategiesUsedintheAddressThetablebelowgivesthedistributionofthepragmaticstrategiesuesdintheAddressfordetail.StrategiesDistributionFrequency(%)RelatedtoCPRedundancy4234.5Metaphor119Humor32.5Vagueness108.2RelatedtoPPRelatedtoTMandGM97.3RelatedtoApMandMM3327.1RelatedtoAgM97.3RelatedtoSM54.1Total122100Table1PragmaticstrategiesusedintheAddress(Notes:TMreferstoTactMaxim,GMtoGenerosityMaxim,ApMtoApprobationMaxim,MMtoModestyMaxim,AgMtoAgreementMaxim,andSMtoSympathyMaxim)Fromtheabove,wecanseethattherearefourpragmaticstrategiesrelatedtoCP,redundancystrategy,metaphorstrategy,humorstrategyandvaguenessstrategy.PP-relatedstrategiesarethoseutterancesobservingthesixmaximsrespectively.Forbetteranalysis,thepresentwriterdividesallthestrategiesintothreegroupsaccordingtothefrequencyofoccurrence,themostusedstrategies,theleastusedstrategiesandthoseusedinbetween.Thetablehasshownthatthestrategyofredundancyaccountsforthemostfrequency,morethanonethirdofthetotal(34.5%).Thehumorstrategyistheleastused,withfrequencyonlybeing0.6%.ThereasonmaybethattheoccasionoftheAddressisquiteformal,andtoomanyhumorsmayberegardedasnotserious.Therestofthestrategiesareusedinbetweenredundancystrategyandhumorstrategy,withfrequenciesnolessthan1percentandnomorethan30percent.Specifically,metaphorstrategy,vaguenessstrategy,strategyrelatedtoTactMaximandGenerosityMaxim,ApprobationMaximandModestyMaxim,AgreementMaximandSympathyMaxim,andstrategiesrelatedtoadaptationtomentalworld,socialworld,andphysicalworldaccountfor9%,8.2%,7.3%,2.6%,27.1%,7.3%,4.1%,and9.6%respectively.WeknowthatwhatObamaissayinganddoingarerestrictedbymanyfactors,suchassocialnorms,time,space,andhispresidentialidentity,sohehastotakeallthesefactorsintoconsiderationandchooseacorrespondentstrategyforsmoothcommunication.4.2RealizationofPragmaticStrategiesInthissection,howthepragmaticstrategiesareusedintheAddressintheframeworkofCPandPPwillbeillustratedindetails.4.2.1CP-relatedPragmaticStrategies4.2.1.1RedundancyStrategyThespeakersgivemoreinformationthanthatisrequired,whichisconsideredasapragmaticstrategy(钱冠连，2002).ItisconsistentwiththefirstmaximofGrice’sCooperativePrinciple.Themaximsofquantitydemandsaspeakertomakehiscontributionasinformativeasisrequired,ratherthanmoreorlessinformativethanisrequired.Asaformalandofficialpoliticaldiscourses,theStateoftheUnionAddressrequirestochoosewordscarefullyandaccurately.InthisAddress,Obamaemploysparallelstructuretoexpresshisideaspowerfully.Parallelstructureisabalancewithinoneormoresentencesofsimilarphrasesorclausesthathavethesamegrammaticalstructure,whichispreferredbyObamaasapragmaticstrategiestopointouthisviewpoint.Hereisanexample:It'showthedaughterofafactoryworkerisCEOofAmerica'slargestautomaker;howthesonofabarkeeperisspeakeroftheHouse;howthesonofasinglemomcanbepresidentofthegreatestnationonEarth.Inthissentence,whentalkingaboutequalaccesstohighereducation,Obamasetssomesmallexamples,whereparallelsentencesareappliedtoemphasizetheimportanceoftertiaryeducationtoordinaryfamilies.However,accordingtothemaximofquantity,whichdemandsthatdonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativeasisrequired,thissentenceseemsalittlebitwordyandunnecessary.Butthecontraryisthefact.Thiskindofsentencepatterncanmakethehearersbetterrealizethesignificantadvantageofequaleducation.Onemoreexamplearegivenforfurtherunderstandingparallelasastrategy.We'reworkingtoredesignhighschoolsandpartnerthemwithcollegesandemployersthatofferthereal-worldeducationandhands-ontrainingthatcanleaddirectlytoajobandcareer.We'reshakingupoursystemofhighereducationtogiveparentsmoreinformation,andcollegesmoreincentivestoofferbettervalue,sothatnomiddle-classkidispricedoutofacollegeeducation.We'reofferingmillionstheopportunitytocaptheirmonthlystudentloanpaymentstotenpercentoftheirincome,andIwanttoworkwithCongresstoseehowwecanhelpevenmoreAmericanswhofeeltrappedbystudentloandebt.Inthesesentences,byusing“We’re…We’re…We’re…”,ObamaappliesparallelsentencestopointoutthegreatcontributionthegovernmenthasmadetoboostacomprehensiveequaleducationforcommonAmericans,makingtertiaryeducationmoreavailabletoeverystudents.Apparently,thisparallelstructureshowstheUS.Government’scommitmenttotackleinequalityineducationsystem.4.2.1.2MetaphorasaPragmaticStrategyAsthesecondmaximofCP,themaximofqualityisveryimportant,forothermaximscannotcomeintooperationifthemaximofqualityisunsatisfied.Bothpartiesincommunicationshouldtrytomaketheircontributiononethatistrue.AccordingtoShu(束定方，2000),themaximsofCooperativePrincipleisnottherules,butabottomlinehypothesizedinverbalcommunicationtomaketheconversationcontinue,itisthebasisofunderstandingutterance.JustasAristotlehaseverput,thegreatestpowerofthelanguageistousemetaphor.MostkindsoffloutingofCooperativePrinciplearerelatedtotherhetoricaluseoflanguage.Ifthespeakerfloutsthemaximofquality,thefiguresofspeechmetaphorwillbecreated.Letuslookatthesesentences:Wealsohavethechance,rightnow,tobeatothercountriesintheraceforthenextwaveofhigh-techmanufacturingjobs.Here“intheraceforthenextwaveofhigh-techmanufacturingjobs”refersto“competingwithothercountriesingloblemarketintermsofhigh-techmanufacturingindustry”.Thedevelopmentoftechnologyenablesindustrytooffermoreworkingopportunities,therebyeliminatingunemploymentproblem.Thismetaphorrevealstheincreasinglyfiercecompetitioninhigh-techmanufacturingfield.Weknowthatthenationthatgoesall-inoninnovationtodaywillowntheglobaleconomytomorrow.ThisisanedgeAmericacannotsurrender.Theexampleaboveisanothermetaphorappliedinthepoliticaldiscourse.“Edge”hereisusedtosignify“boostinginnovationtoleadtheglobeeconomy”,bywhichObamapointsoutthatinnovationistheessenceofglobaleconomy,sotheU.S.governmentwillgiveimportancetotechnicalinnovationinordertoownmoreoverseasmarkets.InthespeechObamausesmetaphorformanytimes,whichisbeneficialforhishearerstounderstandacomplicatedthingthoughanothersimplethingwhichofcoursehassomesimilaritieswiththeformeronetosomeextent.Correlatingcomplicatedandabstractpoliticalproblemswiththelifeofusualpeople,metaphorhelpsObamasetupquiteacloserelationshipwithhisaudienceandachievehiscommunicativepurposeeffectively,andmakesthehearersmucheasiertounderstandthegovernmentorthecountry'spoliticalpurposes,intentionsandaction.4.2.1.3HumorasaPragmaticStrategyThemaximofrelevancehasasinglesub-maxim"berelevant".Themaximitselfisterse,butincommunication,especiallyinpoliticaldiscourses,politiciansalwaysfloutthemaximofrelevance.Hereisanexample:ButconservativeRepublicansandliberalDemocratsareworkingtogethertostrengthenit;andthebipartisancommissionIappointedlastyearhasofferedreformssothatnoonehastowaitmorethanahalfhourtovote.Let'ssupporttheseefforts.Itshouldbethepowerofourvote,notthesizeofourbankaccount,thatdrivesourdemocracy.Humorisaneffectiveandhighlyvaluedmeansofcommunication.ItiseasyforaspeakerwithasenseofhumortobuildharmoniousatmosphereinwhichtheannoyingproblemthatbotherstheAmericangovernmentcanbevividlydescribed.4.2.1.4VaguenessasaPragmaticStrategyThemaximofmannercanbefloutedinthefollowingfourways:obscurity,ambiguity,unnecessaryprolixityanddisorder.TheAddressisaformalandseriousspeechandalwaysservestheadministrationparty,Obamashouldmakesurewhathesaidisclearandorderly.ButvaguenessisusedasapragmaticstrategyinObama'sspeechtodivertthepublicattention.Lookatthefollowingpieceofthespeech.Andintight-knitcommunitiesacrossAmerica,fathersandmotherswilltuckintheirkids,putanarmaroundtheirspouse,rememberfallencomrades,andgivethanksforbeinghomefromawarthat,aftertwelvelongyears,isfinallycomingtoanend.Obamafailstocomplythemaximofmanner,applying“awar”whichindicates“AfghanistanWar”.Continuingfortwelveyears,AfghanistanWarhadtookuplargeportionsofthegovernment’smilitaryspendingandsentthousandsofAmericansoldiertotheirdeath.ThePresidentusesaattributiveclausesratherthanasimplephrasetoexpresstheendofthewarbyfloutingthemaximofManner.Brice'sfourmaximsestablishedimportantnormsofdiscoursethatdifferentgenresandstrategiesplaywith.Tosumup,byfloutingthemaximsofCooperativePrinciple,speakerscancausedifferentlinguisticeffectsandrealizedifferentstrategicfunctionsheexpects.Agoodcommandanduseofpragmaticstrategieswillbeaveryhelpfultoolinpoliticalspeeches.4.2.2PP-relatedPragmaticStrategiesApoliticaldiscourseismoreformalthanthetraditionalwaysofcommunicationspeaking.ItisnoteworthythatthereisahigherdegreeofpolitenessintheAddress.Tryingtobepolite,ObamashouldandhavetoobservePolitenessPrinciple.ThenitcomesdowntoanapplicationofPP-relatedStrategies.4.2.2.1ObservingTactandGenerosityMaxim.TheTactMaximandtheGenerosityMaximformanaturalpairinPP.Theybothdealwithcost-benefitscales(Leech,1983:132).Obamadoesn'tadopttoomuchTactMaxim;themainreasonliesinthatTactMaximisusedin"impositivesentence",whichisobviouslynotpolite,whiletheGenerosityMaximispopularlyused.Guidedbythisrule,speakersoftenachievecommunicativegoalintermsof"promise".I'llcutredtapetohelpstatesgetthosefactoriesbuilt,andthisCongresscanhelpbyputtingpeopletoworkbuildingfuelingstationsthatshiftmorecarsandtrucksfromforeignoiltoAmericannaturalgas.Myadministrationwillkeepworkingwiththeindustrytosustainproductionandjobgrowthwhilestrengtheningprotectionofourair,ourwater,andourcommunities.Andwhilewe'reatit,I'llusemyauthoritytoprotectmoreofourpristinefederallandsforfuturegenerations.HereObamagiveshispromisetoexpandtheusageofnaturalgas,whichismuchsaferandenvironmentallyfriendly.Thisbridgefuelwillpowerthenation’seconomywithlessofthecarbonpollutionthatcausesclimatechange.ThesepolicieswillbenefitAmericansalot.Byfollowingthemaxims,theObamacangetmuchmoresupportandestablishanimageofpowerfulleader.Itisaone-stone-two-birdsthing.4.2.2.2ObservingApprobationandModestyMaximTheApprobationMaximandtheModestyMaximisalsoapairofmaxims,theydealwithpraise-dispraisescales.Themaximofapprobationfocusesonthehearers.Theoperationofthismaximisextremelysimple:inthesamecircumstances,peopletendtogivecompliments.Briefly,tominimizethedispraiseofothersisseenaspolite.TodayinAmerica,ateacherspentextratimewithastudentwhoneededit,anddidherparttoliftAmerica'sgraduationratetoitshighestlevelinmorethanthreedecades.Anentrepreneurflippedonthelightsinhertechstartup,anddidherparttoaddtothemorethan8millionnewjobsourbusinesseshavecreatedoverthepastfouryears.Anautoworkerfine-tunedsomeofthebest,mostfuel-efficientcarsintheworld,anddidhisparttohelpAmericaweanitselfoffforeignoil.Afarmerpreparedforthespringafterthestrongestfive-yearstretchoffarmexportsinourhistory.Atthebeginningofthespeech,ObamanarratestheroutineworkofAmericanpeoplefromallwalksoflife,whichindicatesthateveryAmericansdevotethemselvestothedevelopmentofthenation.Inaddition,heemployssomefiguresaswellassuperlativeadjectivestopraisethehard-workingofeveryAmericans,whichhascontributedtothegreatachievementthenationhasmade.Theapplicationoftheapprobationmaximhelpstopromotetheethnicharmonyandnationalunity.Themaximofmodestyisorientedtowardsthespeakers.Tomaximizedispraisetoselfisbelievedtobepolite.Hereisasample:Today,afterfouryearsofeconomicgrowth,corporateprofitsandstockpriceshaverarelybeenhigher,andthoseatthetophaveneverdonebetter.Butaveragewageshavebarelybudged.Inequalityhasdeepened.Upwardmobilityhasstalled.Thecold,hardfactisthateveninthemidstofrecovery,toomanyAmericansareworkingmorethaneverjusttogetby-letalonegetahead.Andtoomanystillaren'tworkingatall.Afteringprasingthegreatachievementthenationhasmade,ObamainformsalltheAmericanpeopleofthefactthatlotsofsevreproblems,suchastheloweraveragewage,thehigherunemploymentrateandtheboardwealthgap,stillremainstosolveurgentlyandeffeciently.Thereisstillalongwaytogo.Thesesentencesappliesmaximofmodestyremindhearersnottobeconceited.4.2.2.3ObservingAgreementMaximThemaximofagreementconsistsoftwoideas:tominimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother;tomaximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.Inthespeech,ObamaastherepresentativeofDemocraticPartystrivesforseekingcooperationwiththeRepublicparty.Lookatthefollowingsentences:ButIagreewithRepublicanslikeSen.Rubiothatitdoesn'tdoenoughforsingleworkerswhodon'thavekids.Solet'sworktogethertostrengthenthecredit,rewardwork,andhelpmoreAmericansgetahead.Now,Idon'texpecttoconvincemyRepublicanfriendsonthemeritsofthislaw.ButIknowthattheAmericanpeoplearen'tinterestedinrefightingoldbattles.Soagain,ifyouhavespecificplanstocutcosts,covermorepeople,andincreasechoice-tellAmericawhatyou'ddodifferently.Let'sseeifthenumbersaddup.TheDemocraticPartyandtheRepublicPartyaretotallydifferentpartieswhichhavedifferentgoverningphilosophy.Evenso,thepresidentObamaisstillcallingonthetwopartiestoputasidethedifferenceandstrivingformorecooperation.4.2.2.4ObservingSympathyMaximThemaximofsympathyistominimizeantipathybetweenselfandother,andmaximizesympathybetweenselfandother.Thismaximrequiresthehearertosharehappinessandsadnesstogether(刘森林，2007).SoCrusespeaker(2006)thatcongratulations,condolencesandcommiserationsareinherentlypolite.Andintight-knitcommunitiesacrossAmerica,fathersandmotherswilltuckintheirkids,putanarmaroundtheirspouse,rememberfallencomrades,andgivethanksforbeinghomefromawarthat,aftertwelvelongyears,isfinallycomingtoanend.Showingthesympathytothosewhopassedawayandthosekilledinthewar,Obamaputshimselfamongthecommonpeoplewholosttheirlovedones.Thedistancebetweenthepresidentandthecommonpeopleisshortened.4.3DiscussionFromtheaboveanalysis,itisprovedthefeasibilityofCooperativePrincipleandPolitenessPrincipleinanalysisofpublicspeech.Meanwhile,wefindtheprocesstocarryoutpragmaticstrategiesinthestate-of-the-union-addressspeechisverycomplex,whichisunderahighlevelofintentions.Itinvolvestoomanyinternalandexternalfactors.Servingasdemocraticleader,ObamahastotaketheDemocraticinterestsintoconsideration;servingaspresident,hehastoputAmericanpeopleinthefirstplace;servingasspokesmanofcountryimage,hehastofocusondevelopingsoundnationalrelations.Allthefactorscauseeffectsonthepresidentialpragmaticstrategies.Chapter5FindingsandConclution5.1MajorFindingsofthePaperFirstly,presidentObamacarriedoutredundancystrategythroughfloutingquantitymaximofCP,metaphorstrategythroughfloutingqualitymaxim,andhumorstrategyandvaguenessstrategyareappliedthroughfloutingrelationmaximandmannermaximrespectively.TherealizationofPP-relatedstrategiesisthroughobservingTactMaxim,GenerosityMaxim,ApprobationMaxim,ModestyMaxim,SympathyMaximandAgreementMaxim.Secondly,themostfrequentlyusedstrategyisthestrategyofredundancy,accountingformorethanonethirdofthetotal(34.5%).Suchpredominantuseofstrategyisrelatedtothepurposeofthespeech,topersuadepeopletoaccepthispoliticalviewsandpolicies.Ifhetriedthestrategiesthatdistancehimselftohisaddressees,hewouldneverachievesuchpurpose.Theleastusedstrategyisthehumorstrategy.ThereasonmaybethattheoccasionoftheAddressisquiteformal,andtoomanyhumorsmayberegardedasnotserious.Therestofthestrategies,redundancystrategy,strategyrelatedtoTactMaximandGenerosityMaxim,ApprobationMaximandModestyMaxim,AgreementMaxim,andSympathyMaximareusedinbetweenredundancystrategyandhumorstrategy,withfrequenciesnolessthan1percentandnomorethan30percent.TheseproperstrategiesareusedsinceObamahastoplayhisroleasthepresident.Therearemanysocialandculturalrestrictionsonhiswordsandbehaviors.5.2ImplicationsByusingpragmaticstrategies,thepresidentObamaexpressedhisviewandpoliciesinanacceptableway.Hislistenershomeandabroadareimpressedbyhispowerfulandconvincingwords.Thispromptswelanguagelearnersanduserstothinkabouthowtousepragmaticstrategiestoeffectivelyexpressourselvesincommunication.Inaddition,CooperativePrincipleandPolitenessPrincipleareusedasframeworktodoanalysisinthepresentpaper.ActuallyothertheoriessuchasRelevanceTheory,FaceTheory,canalsobeusedtoanalyzetheStateoftheUnionAddress.What'smore,theStateoftheUnionAddressisonlyoneofthegenresoftext.Thepragmaticanalysisofsuchgenresasnetworklanguage,filmlanguageandinterviewsurelyshednewlightonhowpragmaticstrategiesareactuallyusedinhumancommunication.Duetothelimitationsoftheauthor'scapabilityandknowledge,theanalysisandfindingsofthethesismaynotbecomprehensiveandfairenough,somewhatprobablypartial.Thereisstilllargeroomforimprovement.BIBLIOGRAPHYAustinJ.L.1972.HowtoDoThingswithWords[M].Oxford:ClarendonPress.BrownP.&LevinsonS.C.1987.Politeness:SomeUniversalsinLanguageUsage[M].Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Ch