unit7presupposition市公开课一等奖省赛课微课金奖课件

Unit7PragmaticPresupposition

/entries/presupposition/1/76PresuppositionOutlineIntroductionTheoryDailyuse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers2/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers3/76Presupposition预设4/76Presupposition: Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiversalreadyknows5/76Whydoespresuppositionexist?

Becauseitenablesustocommunicatesuccinctly.Itismucheasiertosay… Johndoesn’twriteanymore…thanitistosay…..ApersonwebothknowandagreethathisnameisJohn,andwhoknowshowtowrite,andwhoisabletowritepoetry,wrotepoetryinsomepasttime,andknowhedoesnotwritepoetry6/76Watchavideoadvertisement,doyouknowwhatitisadvertising?7/76TrueLoveIllyCoffee8/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers9/76Definition

Apresuppositionisbackgroundbelief,relatingtoanutterance,thatmustbemutuallyknownorassumedbythespeakerandaddresseefortheutterancetobeconsideredappropriateincontextgenerallywillremainanecessaryassumptionwhethertheutteranceisplacedintheformofanassertion,denial,orquestion,andcangenerallybeassociatedwithaspecificlexicalitemorgrammaticalfeature(presuppositiontrigger)intheutterance.10/76Pragmaticpresuppositionis“somethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutteranceoramessagepreconditionfortheprocessingofanycommunication”(Yule,1996:25).Pragmaticpresuppositionsarebestdescribedasarelationbetweenaspeakerandtheappropriatenessofasentenceinacontext(Levinson,1997:177).Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions(Yule,1996:25).11/76何自然(1997)hassummarizedvariouskindsofpragmaticpresuppositionsasthefollowing:1)speaker’sassumptionofthecontextinwhichanutteranceismade,2)mutualknowledge,3)felicityconditionstobesatisfiedforaspeechacttobeperformed.12/76TheutteranceJohnregretsthathestoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridgehasthefollowingpresuppositions:ThereissomeoneuniquelyidentifiabletospeakerandaddresseeasJohn.JohnstoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnwasdoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnleftCambridge.JohnhadbeenatCambridge.13/76SomemoreonthepragmatictheoryInfluentialexponentsincludeStalnaker(1974):suggestedthatwhenpeoplecommunicate,theyhaveacommongroundthisisabackgroundsetofassumptionsthattheybothmake,andknowtobetruepresuppositionworksagainstthiscommongroundfelicitoususeofanutterancerequiresthatitspresuppositionsbecommonlyheldbyallinterlocutors14/76DealingwithnewpresuppositionsIt’safactaboutcommunicationthatnoteverythingwepresupposeisknowntoourinterlocutorA:Mydogdied.B:Didn’tknowyouhadone.Waysout:wecanaskforclarificationsometimes,wedon’tbecausethepresuppositionisquiteclearandobviousWejustadoptit.15/76AccommodationLewis(1979)suggestedthatinterlocutorscarryoutaccomodation: Ifattimetsomethingissaidthatpresupposesp,butpisnotpresupposed(notincommonground),then,allotherthingsbeingequal,pisintroducedinthecommonground.16/76Ordinaryconversationdoesnotalwaysproceedintheidealorderlyfashiondescribedearlier.Peopledomakeleapsandshortcutsbyusingsentenceswhosepresuppositionsarenotsatisfiedintheconversationalcontext.Thisistheruleratherthantheexception[…]Ithinkwecanmaintainthatasentenceisalwaystakentobeanincrementtoacontextthatsatisfiesitspresuppositions.Ifthecurrentconversationalcontextdoesnotsuffice,thelistenerisentitledandexpectedtoextenditasrequired.(Karttunen1974:191)17/76AccommodationexampleSpeakerA(toB):Theguywhomurderedmycatwasreallyinsane.They’venowputhiminanasylum.SupposeBdidn’tknowmycatwasmurdered.ThedefinitedescriptiontheguywhomurderedmycatpresupposesthatthereisonepersonwhowasthemurdererofmycatBcanaccommodatethis,byassumingthatit’strueandisnowpartofcommonground18/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers19/76预设在日常生活对话中

应用和分析场景1：一家三口在吃火锅。背景是这家小孩很喜欢吃炸面筋。平时学校放学后他就喜欢马上去买来吃。恰好今天餐桌上就有炸面筋。对话就这么开始了。母亲：小新啊，你看，你最喜欢吃炸面筋好了。快趁热吃啊。儿子：马上夹起一块就放嘴里。母亲：怎样？不错吧？儿子：超好吃啊！！！母亲：你看，家里煮面筋又好吃，又洁净，以后尽可能不要在外面吃了，知道吗？儿子：哦，知道了。20/76分析:这里母亲在与儿子对话中预设了在外面吃不洁净，不好吃，所以对话中橙色部分就是预设。这里，预设了在外面吃东西不卫生这个客观情况。目标:母亲与儿子对话在这里到达了她教育目标:以后不要在外面乱吃东西。21/76场景2：大学宿舍小新刚下课。当他回到自己座位旁，发觉了女朋友送他水杯掉在了地上，旁边站着小觉是一脸无辜表情。小新：这是怎么回事？小觉：这个，这个……小新：你什么时候把他打烂？小觉：不是我啊，我也刚进来22/76作用:预设除了能够用于教育小辈之外（例1），还能够使听者有被责备感觉。不过这会使对话无法进行下去。而且很轻易造成误会。因为这里小新预设了杯就是小觉打烂。但事实可能是他人打烂或是别原因，只是小觉刚好站那里就招致误会了。当然，预设在日常生活中应用是举不胜举。此处就不再细列。23/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers24/76动感地带周杰伦纸条篇

StudentA:老师,我没有……StudentB:你看错了吧……老师.老师,我们没有作弊.Theteacher:你看到他们传纸条了吗?你看到他们作弊了吗?StudentC:没有.他们发短信.

他们发短信作弊.25/76动感地带周杰伦纸条篇

短信无处不在我地盘,我短信26/76台北市政府喝酒不开车篇我不该爱他.我爱他.我不该相信他.我相信他.我不该在他喝酒以后,还把车钥匙给他.他喝了酒.我把车钥匙给了他.27/76DrunkAlcoholKeyoftheCarCasualtyCarAccident28/76WrittenAdvertisements1.You’llwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate.Alowratethatstayslowwithoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate.Justoneflatrateof6.9%p.aforbothbalancetransfersandpurchases.That’sit.Youcanrelax,knowingyou’vegottheflatrate,andwon’thavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain.TheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard.Lowratesthatstatlow.

29/76A.“1.You’llwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate”Thereisadifferentcreditcard,Thecreditcardiswithalowrate.B.“withoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate”Theothercreditcardsarewithintroductoryofferandexpiryrate.C.“knowingyou’vegottheflatrate”ThereisaflatrateD.“won’thavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain”Youhadthehassleofswitchingcardsinthepast.30/76HaveyourfortunetoldforTheYearofTheRooster.RedeemanexclusivefortuneGuide.Career,money,romance,health-whatdoeshaveinstoreforyou?MakLingLingandYauTinYuenhavealltheanswers,Youcanreadtheformer’sFortuneGuideTotheYearoftheRoosterinEnglishatthespecialredemptionpriceof$25,orthelatter’sspecialChineseeditionfor$8.Andyouwillalsoreceiveafreefortunatecrystalbracelet.Byfollowingtheiradvice,youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortuneintheyeartocome.Don’twaituntilit’stoolate!31/76A“whatdoeshaveinstoreforyou?”YouhaveafixeddestinyinB“afreefortunatecrystalbracelet(手镯）”

ThereisacrystalbraceletthatcanbringyouluckC“youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortuneintheyeartocome.”ThereisgoodluckandillfortuneintheyeartocomeGoodluckcanbeenhancedIllfortunecanbeavoidedD“Don’twaituntilit’stoolate!”Youneeditsomeday.32/76Tosummarize,presuppositionsareacrucialpartofadvertisingastheycancausethereadertoconsidertheexistenceofobjects,propositions,andculturallydefinedbehavioralproperties:forexample,"Haveyouhadyourdailyvitamins?"presupposesthatyoutakeorneed"dailyvitamins",therebycreatingandperpetuatingtheideathatthebehavioroftakingvitaminsdailyispartofourculture.Similarly,"What'sgreataboutChuckWagondogfood?"(Geis1982,45)presupposesthatthereissomethinggreataboutthedogfood.33/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers34/76Presupposition:Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)

Implicitmeaningsconveyedbythespeakerthroughtheuseofparticularwords.Ex:"TheColdWarhasended"presupposesthattheexistenceoftheentitiesitrefersto,inthiscasethe"ColdWar".35/76Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions36/76Entailmentisnotapragmaticconcept.Itisdefinedaswhatlogicallyfollowsfromwhatisassertedintheutterance.

Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.37/76Example:

Susan’ssisterboughttwohouses.ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister.ThissentencehastheentailmentsthatSusan’ssisterboughtsomething;nowshehas2houses,ahouse,andothersimilarlogicalconsequences.

Theentailmentsarecommunicatedwithoutbeingsaidandarenotdependentonthespeaker’sintention.38/76Presupposition:Therelationshipbetweentwopropositions.Mary’scatiscute.(p)Maryhasacat.(q)p>>q=ppresupposesqIfthespeakerdeniesthepropositionp(NOTp),thepresuppositionqdoesn’tchange.Mary’scatisn’tcute.(NOTp)Maryhasacat.(q)Notp>>q=Notppresupposesq39/76Presupposition:Constancyundernegation:Thepresuppositionofastatementwillremaintrueevenwhenthatstatementisnegated.40/76Presupposition:Otherexamplesofconstancyundernegation:p:DaveisangrybecauseJimcrashedthecar.q:Jimcrashedthecarp>>qNOTp:Daveisn’tangrybecauseJimcrashedthecarq:JimcrashedthecarNOTp>>q41/76Presupposition:p:Mr.Singletonhasresumedhishabitofdrinkingstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.p>>qNOTp:Mr.Singletonhasn’tresumedhishabitofdrinkingstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.NOTp>>q42/76Entailmentsentencesthatstandinanimplicationalrelation,wherethetruthofthefirstguaranteesthetruthofthesecond.Theanarchistassassinatedtheemperor.Theemperordied.So,thefirstsentenceentailsthesecond.43/76A:Everyonepassedtheexamination.B:No-onefailedtheexamination.AentailsB

wheneverAistrue,BistruetheinformationthatBcontainsiscontainedintheinformationthatAconveysasituationdescribablebyAmustalsobeasituationdescribablebyBAandNOTBarecontradictory.44/76Wetakeentailmentrelationstobethosethatspecificallyarisefromlinguisticstructure45/76Generallyspeaking,entailmentisnotapragmaticconcept(i.e.havingtodowiththespeakermeaning),butitisconsideredapurelylogicalconcept.46/76Presuppositionsvs.entailmentsUtterancesandtheir

presuppositions.1)Shehasstoppedsmoking.presupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogatemybag.presupposesIhaveadog,andIhave(had)abag.Utterancesandtheir

entailments.Theemperorwasassassinated

entails1)Someonewasassassinated.2)Theemperordied.47/76Presuppositionsaredifferentfromentailments.1)

Shehasn’tstoppedsmoking.StillpresupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogdidn’teatmybag.StillpresupposesIhaveadog,andI(still,itseems)haveabag.

whileTheemperorwasn’tassassinated.Doesnotentailanymore1)Someonewasassassinated.2)Theemperordied.48/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers49/76TypesofPresuppositionPresuppositionsareassociatedwiththeuseofalargenumberofwords,phrasesandstructures.

Theselinguisticformsareconsideredasindicatorsofpotentialpresupposition,whichcanonlybecomeactualpresuppositionincontextswithspeakers.50/761-Existentialpresupposition:Entitiesnamedbythespeakerandassumedtobepresent-nounphrase.-possessiveconstructions“David’scarisnew”wecanpresupposethatDavidexistsandthathehasacar.Somelexicaltriggers:Definitenounphrases:Thestudentfellasleep.Thestudentdidn’tfallasleepDavidisabachelor(Davidisanunmarriedmaleperson)51/762-Factivepresupposition:identifiedbythepresenceofsomeverbssuchas"know“,"realize“,“beglad”,“besorry”,etc.Somelexicaltriggers:Factiveverbs:TracyrealizedPatateasandwich.Patregrettedeatingasandwich.Patlikedeatingasandwich.IwasawareoftheclasscancellationonMondayTheyannouncedthewinnerofthecontest.I’mgladit’sover.Shedidn’trealizethatshewasill.52/763-Lexicalpresupposition:Inusingoneword,thespeakercanactasifanothermeaningwillbeunderstood.Forinstance:Marystoppedrunning.(>>Heusedtorun.)

Youarelateagain.(>>Youwerelatebefore.)Areyoustillsuchabaddriver?(>>Youwereabaddriver)"stop“,"again““still”aretakentopresupposeanother(unstated)concept.Somelexicaltriggers:Changeofstateverbs:Patstoppedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Patstartedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Verbsofjudgment:TracyblamedPatforeatingthesandwich.TracyfaultsPatforeatingthesandwich.SusanisaccusedofX(Xisbad)SusanwascriticizedforX(XisbadandSusandidX)53/764-Structuralpresupposition:itistheassumptionassociatedwiththeuseofcertainstructures.-wh-questionconstructions.WhendidshetraveltotheUSA?(>>shetravelled)

Wheredidyoubuythebook?(>>youboughtthebook)

Thelistenerperceivesthattheinformationpresentedisnecessarilytrue,orintendedastruebythespeaker..54/765-Non-factivepresupposition:itisanassumptionreferredtosomethingthatisnottrue.Forexample,verbslike"dream","imagine"and"pretend"areusedwiththepresuppositionthatwhatfollowsisnottrue.IdreamedthatIwasrich.(>>Iwasnotrich)

WeimaginedthatwewereinLondon.(>>WewerenotinLondon)55/766-Counterfactualpresupposition:itistheassumptionthatwhatispresupposedisnotonlyuntrue,butistheoppositeofwhatistrue,orcontrarytofacts.conditionalstructures,Ifyouweremydaughter,Iwouldnotallowyoutodothis.(>>youarenotmydaughter)IfIwererichIwouldbuyaFerrari(>>I’mnotrich)56/76It-cleftconstruction/cleftsentences: a)ItwasTOMthatdidthework.

b)Itwasn’tMEwhotookyourjacket.57/76Cleftsentencesareusedtohelpusfocusonaparticularpartofthesentenceandtoemphasisewhatwewanttosay…Becausetherearetwoparts…theyarecalledcleft(fromtheverbcleave)whichmeansdividedintotwo.Cleftsentencesareparticularlyusefulinwritingwherewecannotuseintonationforpurposesoffocusoremphasis,buttheyarealsofrequentlyusedinspeech.

Cleftstructuresincludethereasonwhy,thethingthat,theperson/peoplewho,theplacewhere,thedaywhenandwhat-clauseswhichareusuallylinkedtotheclausethatwewanttofocusonwithisorwas.From:BBCWorldservice58/76From"BarclaysWorldwide“,afour-monthlynewsletterforclientsofBarclaysbankwholiveoutsidetheUK.

1998summer-issue,apassageabouttheintroductionoftheEuro,titled"EuroUpdate-Yourquestionsanswered".

Britainmayjoininthelifetimeofafutureparliament

theUKhasnotjoinedsofar

acarefully-expressedappreciationofthevalueofsterling

59/76TheCharacteristicsofPragmaticPresuppositionone-sidedness,subjectivenessandsneakiness(陈新仁,1998).Allthesepropertiesmakepresuppositionsubjective,sneaky,deceptiveandmisleading.60/76FelicityInthiscondition,felicitycanalsoberefereedasappropriateness.Pragmaticpresuppositionisoftenregardedasconditionsforthefelicitoususeofsentencestoperformaspeechact.“AnutteranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”(Levinson:1983).61/76Thatpersonisnotabachelor--何自然(:113-4)(1)Heismarried.(2)He’sonlysixyearsold.(3)Thepersonisawoman.(4)Thepersonisawoman,whoismarried.(5)Thepersonisaspinster.Theaboveexampleshowsthatpresuppositionmustbeappropriatetothecontextsoastoguaranteethemeaningfulnessoftheutterance.62/76Mutualknowledge“AnutteranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyifBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”.Canyouclosethewindow?Presuppositionshouldbecommonlyknownoracceptedinformationfortheparticipantsofcommunication,otherwisethehearerwillmisunderstandthespeaker’sutterance.

63/76One-sidednessThisreferstothefactthatthepresuppositionismadeonlybytheaddresser

himselfandthatitexistsonlyinthemindoftheaddresserhimselfbeforethepresuppositionisinterpretedorinferredbytheaddressee.Mutual

knowledge

relatestoutteranceunderstandingwhileone-sidednessrelatestopragmaticpresuppositionitself.

64/76SubjectivenessPragmaticpresuppositionissubjective.Itisakindofcontextassumptionwithanassertivefeature.Itisnotnecessarytrueorcorrect.Pragmaticpresuppositionisdefinedasthebelieforattitudeofthespeakerorhearerconcerningthetruthofaproposition.Itisnotaninevitabletruthbutanassumptionaboutthecontext.

65/76SneakinessPragmaticpresuppositioniscloselyconnectedwiththespeaker'sbelief,attitudeandintention.Inaddition,itcomesfrompeople'sknowledgeabouttheway,inwhichlanguageusersconventionallyinterpretthewordsandstructuresthattriggerit,sopresuppositionisconcealedinaconversationandcanbequite“sneaky”.

Doyoustillbeatyourwife?66/76AnalysisofadvertisementWe

can't

keep

something

this

juicy

a

secret

(Juicy,from

http://www.S.htm).67/76Thisadvertisementcanleaveaverydeepimpressiononthereaders.

Theexistentialpresuppositionistriggeredbythedemonstrativepronoun“this”,whichpresupposesthatthereissomething“thisjuicy”,andthenmakesanassertionaboutit.Oneimportantfunctionofthepresuppositionhereistopromoteakind