现代语言学unit5 20151017 4th教材

Unit5Semantics

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Unit6Pragmatics2015.10.25Unit5Semantics1.Semantics语义学2.Viewsofmeaningstudy意义研究的几种观点3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义4.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系5.Meaninganalysis意义分析1.Whatissemantics？thestudyofmeaninginlanguage.对语言意义的研究。2.Viewsofmeaningstudy意义研究的几种观点1)

Thenamingtheory命名论2)

Theconceptualistview意念论3)

Contextualism语境论4)

Behaviorism行为主义论Thenamingtheory命名论p92proposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.

古希腊学者柏拉图提出;wordsarejustnames/labelsforthings.thelinguisticforms/thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.词是该词所指事物的名称或标记。

Thenamingtheory命名论p92两点不足1.只适用于名词，因为名词有名称或标记；不适用于动词，形容词，副词等；2.不适用于名词中，抽象的或不存在的事物，因为他们在现实中没有对应的事物。Theconceptualistview

意念论p92-93givenbyOgdenandRichards;由奥格登和理查德提出；believethatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;thelinguisticformanditsmeaningislinkedby

theconceptinthemind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；语言形式及其意义之间由大脑中的意念来联系。

Theconceptualistview

意念论p93THOUGHT/REFERENCE概念.....................................FORM语言形式REFERENT指称语言符号现实中的事物dog的意义是人们大脑中关于狗这种动物的概念的集合，而不是现实中的某只狗。semantictriangle语义三角Contextualism语境论p93-94e.g.1:blackhairv.s.blackcoffee黑发V.S.不加奶的咖啡e.g.2:1)Thesealcouldbefound.2)Thesealcouldbefound.Thezookeeper....Theking....海豹印章/玉玺

语境很重要，一个表达脱离了他的语境，是没有任何意义的。Contextualism语境论p93-94givenbyJohnFirth由英国语言学家约翰福斯提出；

itisbasedontheideathatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。Therearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。Linguisticcontext:isabouttheprobabolityofaword'sco-occurencewithanotherwordandwiththepartofthetextthatprecedesandfolllowsanutterance名词解释Behaviorism行为主义论p93givenbyBloomfield由布鲁姆菲尔德提出；

themeaningofalanguageformisthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。JillandJack

Summary2.Viewsofmeaningstudy意义研究的几种观点1)

Thenamingtheory命名论plato提出；意义级事物的名称或标记2)

Theconceptualistview意念论OgdenandRichards提出，语言形式和他的意义之间由人脑中的意念来联系；语义三角3)

Contextualism语境论Firth提出；情景语境和语言语境4)

Behaviorism行为主义论Bloomfield提出，意义即语言使用者在交际过程中对听到的话语的反应。Exercises35.linguisticcontext15.Inthestudyofmeaning,twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.5.Theviewthatthemeaningofalinguisticformisdefinedasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”wasproposedby______.A.Plato B.OgdenandRichardsC.JohnFirth D.Bloomfield36.behaviourismasasemanticview

p9536.semantictrianglep935.Bloomfielddrewon_______psychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.A.contextual B.onceptualistC.behaviorist D.mentalist36.thenamingtheory

p925．Oftheviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning,theoneinwhichmeaningisexplainedintermsofobservablestimuliandresponsesmadebyparticipantsinspecificsituationsisreferredtoasA．contextualism B．behaviourismC．conceptualis

D．thenamingtheory_____5.Thenamingtheorywasproposedby.A.theGreekscholarPlato

B.C.K.OgdenandI.A.Richards

C.theBritishlinguistJ.Firth D.theAmericanlinguistL.Bloomfield3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义

3.1Senseandreference

意义和所指

3.2Majorsenserelations

主要意义关系

Synonymy同义关系Polysemy多义关系Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Hyponymy上下义关系Antonymy反义关系3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义

wordmeaning:lexical小节3themeaning词汇意义oflanguage语言意义sentencemeaning小节4句子意义thereferenceoftheword"dog"

3.1Senseandreference

意义和所指p96

“dog”字典中：“家养犬科类动物，多种类别，大小及外貌体格不同”notaparticulardog;任何满足这些特征的动物，而非现实中的某条狗狗。"thedogisbarking"acertaindog;adogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.thesenseoftheword"dog"

3.1Senseandreference

意义和所指

Senseistheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.(Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;)itisabstractandde-contextualized.意义是指语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。

3.1Senseandreference

意义和所指

2)

Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;（itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.）所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物Onelinguisticsymbolcanhavedifferentreferenceswhilebearingthesamesense.p96Therearealsooccasions,thoughlessfrequent,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.

p97

3.2Majorsenserelations

主要意义关系

3.2.1Synonymy同义关系3.2.2Polysemy多义关系3.2.3Homonymy同音/同形异义关系3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系3.2.5Antonymy反义关系3.2.1Synonymy同义关系referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。

3.2.1Synonymy同义关系a)

Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词British-EnglishandAmerican-English英国英语

美国英语Autumn

fallLift

elevatorsynonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.用在不同地域方言中的同义词。3.2.1Synonymy同义关系b)

Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词synonymsdifferinginstyle.－在文体上有差异的同义词。

differinstyle,ordegreeofformality:formal,casual,andneutral.在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同:正式，随意，中性的。Start,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringp98其他例子3.2.1Synonymy同义关系c)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。

havethesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,showinghisattitudeorbiastowardwhatheistalkingabout.有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，暗示态度或倾向。

Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同谋者，帮凶Like,love,admire,adore,worshipp99其他例子3.2.1Synonymy同义关系d)Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.同义词在其搭配上各不相同differintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。控告Accuse…of

charge…with

rebuke…forp993.2.1Synonymy同义关系e)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上不同的同义词synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑

astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事

flee意味匆匆离开3.2.2Polysemy多义关系

Table一词最初只有一个意义，很可能指一块石板或木板，这叫做其原始意义。后来它逐渐获得了它现在所指称的其它意义。p100最后一段3.2.2Polysemy多义关系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。3.2.3Homonymy同音/同形异义关系

Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.两个单词在发音上相同时，叫同音异义词。rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace3.2.3Homonymy同音/同形异义关系

Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.两个单词在拼写上相同时，叫同形异义词。bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.3.2.3Homonymy同音/同形异义关系

Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时，叫完全同形异义词。fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.3.2.3Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象，即不同的词发音上或拼写上，或者两个方面都相同。3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系flowerrose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牵牛花）animaldog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bearthesuperordiante上义词thehyponyms下义词theco-hyponyms同下义词3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词，意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。

3.2.5Antonymy反义关系itmeanstheoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。a)

Gradableantonyms分级反义词Old和young是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如middle-aged,mature,elderly.coldcoolwarmlukewarmmeansthereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.itisamatterofdegree.一些反义词是级别上的对立，因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。b)Complementaryantonyms

互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymshasthefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.互补反义词具有这样的特征，否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说，是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。Male/female

alive/dead

c)

Relationalopposites关系反义词

showsthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。Wife/husband

father/son

teacher/pupil

doctor/patient

buy/sell

above/belowSummary3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义

3.1Senseandreference

意义和所指

3.2Majorsenserelations

主要意义关系

Synonymy同义：方言，文体，情感，搭配，语义差别Polysemy多义Homonymy同音/同形异义：同形，同音，完全同形Hyponymy上下义关系:上义词，下义词，同下义词Antonymy反义：分级，互补，关系反义词Exercises35.synonymy

p9715.Ifwesay“Thebabyiscrying,”wemustbetalkingaboutacertainbabycryinginacertainsituation;theword“baby”meansababyknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer,whichisthereference

oftheword“baby”inthisparticularsituation.25.Thepairofwords,“husband”and“wife,”arecomplementaryantonyms.

Frelational关系反义词5.Accordingtothewaysynonymsdiffer,whichgroupofsynonymsdo“lift”and“elevator”illustrate?A.Dialectalsynonyms. B.Stylisticsynonyms.

C.Collocationalsynonyms. D.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms.25.Onelinguisticsymbolcanhavedifferentreferenceswhilebearingthesamesense.Therearealsooccasions,thoughlessfrequent,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.

p9715.Therelationshipbetweenthewordsinsuchpairsas“buy”and“by,”“stationary”and“stationery”canbelabeledashomonymy.35.sense

p965.Thesenserelationbetween“flower”and“lily”is_______.()A.antonymy B.homonymyC.polysemy D.hyponymy25.(T

)Senseisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;anditisabstractandde-contextualized.5.Synonymsareclassifiedintoseveralkinds.Thewordssuchasstart,begin,andcommencecanbecalled________synonyms.()A.dialectal

B.stylistic

C.emotive D.collocational25.(

F

)Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledcomplementaryopposites.relational5.______isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticformwhile_______dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.()A.Reference,sense B.Sense,referentC.Sense,reference D.Referent,sense15.Thesynonymssuchaseconomical,thrifty,andstingyaredifferentintheiremotive

meaning.25．(T)Theword“flower”and“flour”，whichareidenticalinsound，butdifferentinspellingandmeaning，arehomophones．15.Pairsofwordswhichexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthelexicalitemsarecalledrelational_____opposites.35.collocationalsynonyms

p9937.stylisticsynonyms

p9815.Thewordssuchas“pop”meaningacertainsoundand“pop”meaningpopularareinrelationshipofcomplete

homonyms.

p10135.hyponymy

p1005.Inthefollowingpairsofwords,______areapairofrelationalopposites.()A.“buy”and“sell” B.“male”and“female”C.“hot”and“cold” D.“alive”and“dead”5.Thewordsstationaryandstationeryareidenticalinsound,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning.Theyare_______.（）A.completehomonyms B.homographsC.hyponyms D.homophones15.Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelational_______opposites.15.Collocationalsynonymsaresynonymsthatdifferinthewordstheygotogetherwith.Itisamatterofusage.p9925.(

F)Senseandreferenceareofthesamethinginmeaningstudy.37.complementaryantonyms

p10325.(T)Englishisrichinsynonymsforhistoricalreasonsbutcompletesynonyms,i.e.synonymsthataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare.

p9735.sense

p965．Antonymsaredividedintoseveralkinds.WhichofthefollowingisNOTakindofantonyms?（）A．complementary B．relationalC．superordinate D．gradableT15.etymology25.(t)Theimportantcriteriatodistinguishpolysemyfromhomonymyaretheetymologyofthewordsinquestionandtheclosenessoftherelationshipbetweenthemeaningsinquestion.34.co-hyponyms35.senseandreference35.homonymy4.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系1)

XissynonymouswithY.

X和Y是同义关系2)

XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系3）XentailsY.X蕴涵Y4)XpresupposesY.X预示Y5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常1)

XissynonymouswithY.

X和Y是同义关系示例：X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的，Y也是真的，如果X是假的，Y也是假的。p1042)

XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系示例：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的，Y就是假的，如果X是假的，Y就是真的。3）XentailsY.X蕴涵Y示例：X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女继承人).Y:Johnmarriedablond.蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y，X的意义就为Y所包含。4)XpresupposesY.X预示Y示例：X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.YisaprerequisiteofX.Y是X的前提条件。5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句示例：X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾，它永远是假的。6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常示例：X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在语义上反常，它就是荒唐的。Summary4.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系1)

XissynonymouswithY.

X和Y是同义关系2)

XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系3）XentailsY.X蕴涵Y4)XpresupposesY.X预示Y5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常ExercisesContraditionp1055.Semantically,thesentence“Iregretsteppingonyourbook”______thesentence“Isteppedonyourbook.”

A.presupposes B.entailsC.contradicts D.issynonymouswith25.（T）Indiscussingthesenserelationsbetweensentences,YisaprerequisiteofX.SoifYistrue,Xmustbetrue.25.（Fentailment）“HehasbeentoNewYork”presupposes“HehasbeentoAmerica”.25.(T)Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,themeaningofXisincludedinY.35.presupposition[10515.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisfalse,andifXisfalse,Yistrue.TherelationshipbetweenXandYisinconsistent___p1045.Meaninganalysis意义分析1)

Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning语义成分分析法－一种词义分析法2)

Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析－一种句义分析法1)

Componentialanalysis词汇的成分分析法man＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEwoman＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+FEMALEboy＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE,-ADULTThemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.p106一个单词的意义可以分析为被称作语义特征的意义成分。1)

Componentialanalysis词汇的成分分析法

Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.用加减号来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在还是省缺，这些特征符号通常用大写字母来表示。成分分析的表示方法p106boy＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE,-ADULT成分分析的好处p106Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.一个好处是，通过列出某些单词的语义特征，就可能显示这些单词在意义上有什么联系。Man和woman这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。Man和boy这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。

2)

Predicationanalysis句子意义的述谓结构分析p107sentencemeaning句子意义predicationanalysis述谓分析sentencemeaning句子意义first,themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.一个句子的意义并非他的各个组成部分的意义总和。e.g.Thedogbittheman.Themanbitthedog.twosentences:samewords,differentmeanings.sentencemeaning句子意义Second,twoaspectsofmeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning句子意义包括两个方面：语法意义和语义意义sentencemeaning句子意义A.grammaticalmeaning语法意义isitsgrammaticality,thatis,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.合乎语法性p107e.g.Thedogarechasingthecat.Hegivethebookme.sentencemeaning句子意义B.semanticmeaning语义意义whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyselectionalrestrictions语义限制p107areconstraintsonwhatgrammaticalitemscangowithwhatothers.e.g.Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.Heissleepingquietly.sentencemeaning句子意义somesentencesmaybegrammaticallywell-formed,yettheymaynotbesemanticallymeaningful.p108Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.predicationanalysis述谓分析givenbyLeech,李奇提出Ingrammaticalanalysis,p108thesentenceisthebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosubject,predicate,andattribute.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitispredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.对句子进行意义分析时，基本单位称为述谓，这是对句子意义的抽象化。predicationanalysis述谓分析p108Apredication=argument(s)+predicate.一个述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。e.g.句子句子的论元结构Tomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)论元谓词Kidslikeapples.KID,APPLE(LIKE)论元们谓词

Anargumentisp108alogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.一个论元是一个述谓的一个逻辑参与者，与一个句子中的一个或数个名词性成分大体一致。

Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsnasentence.一个谓词是关于论元的陈述，或者说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。

predicationanalysis述谓分析句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓，下列所有句子具有同样的述谓：p109e.g.Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。

Accordingtothenumberofargumentsinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintop109two-placepredication,两位述谓结构one-placepredication,单位述谓结构andno-placepredication.零位述谓结构e.g.Thebuildingisnexttothelibrary.(Two-placepredication)Heissnoring.(One-placepredication)Itislate.(No-placepredication)Summary5.Meaninganalysis意义分析1)

Componentialanalysis语义成分分析法——分析词义，把一个词的意义分成用+和-表示的语义特征2)

Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析——分析句义2.1两种句子意义：语法意义和语义意义2.2述谓结构分析：论元，谓词Exericses15.compotential;25.T;5.A35.p1065.Thesentence“Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously”isatypicalexampleofviolationof________.p107A.speechacttheory B.principlesofconversationC.selectionalrestrictions

D.grammaticalrules15.Intermsofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.5.Predicationanalysisisawaytoanalyze_______meaning.A.word B.utteranceC.phrase D.sentence35.argument

p10837.grammaticalmeaning

p107Inpredicationanalysis,anarguement

______isalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence25.【T】Thesentence“JohngaveabooktoMary”containsthreearguments.ItspredicationcanbewrittenasJOHN,BOOK,MARY(GIVE).15.Inpredicationanalysis,apredicate__issomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.35.selectionalrestrictionsp10735.predication