(生态学及生物圈之介绍)

An

Introduction

to

Ecologyand

the

Biosphere

(

生

態

學

及

生物

圈

之

介

绍

)Chapter50Lecturesby

ChrisRomeroCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsPowerPoint

LecturesforBiology,SeventhEditionNeilCampbelland

JaneReeceKeyConcepts(基本觀念)50.1:Ecology

isthestudyofinteractionsbetweenorganisms

and

the

environment.(生態學是研究生物舆環

境間

之

互

動

)50.2:Interactionsbetweenorganismsandthe50.3:Abioticandbioticfactorsinfluencethestructure

and

dynamics

of

aquatic

biomes.(非生物舆生物因子

影

響水生生物之結構舆動態)50.4:Climate

largelydeterminesthedistributionandstructure

ofterrestrialbiomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結構舆分佈)environment

limit

the

distribution

of

species

.(生物舆環

境間之互動限制物種之分佈)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsOverview:TheScopeofEcology(生態學的範疇)·

Overview:TheScopeof

Ecology·

Ecology

(生態學)-

lsthescientificstudyofthe

interactions(互environment·

Theseinteractions(互動)-

Determine

boththedistribution(分佈)oforganisms

and

their

abundance(豐

度

)動)betweenorganismsandtheCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings·

Ecology

(生態學)-

Isanenormouslycomplexand

exciting

areaof

biology.-

Reveals

the

richness

of

the

biosphere

(生物圈)

.Figure50.1.Therichness

ofthe

biosphereevident

inoneareaofa

Panamanianforest.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·

Ci

apctti

b:Ee

g

hneis

dayn

do

heenvironment·

Ecology

(生態學)—

Hasalong

history

as

adescriptivescience

(

描

述

性

科

學

)—

Is

also

arigorous

experimental

science(實

驗性

科

學

)—

ls

an

integrative

biology(整合性生物學)

·tfmsstuorisweoloons50.1ectnnoCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsOrganismsandtheEnvironment(生物舆環境)·

Theenvironmentofanyorganism

includes—

Abiotic

(

非

生

物

性

)

,or

nonlivingcomponents:temperature,sunlight,waterand

nutrient.—Biotic

(生物性),or

living

components:

other—

,Alltheorganisms

living

intheenvironment,the

biota

(生物相)(Biota,biomass,biomes)

organisms.Copyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsEcology

and

Evolutionary

Biology(

演化

生

物

學

)

·

Events

that

occur

in

ecologicaltime—

Affectlifeonthescale

ofevolutionary

time.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsSouthern

Australia

hascool,moist

winters

andwarm,dry

summers.—TasmaniaEnvironmental

components(環境成份、組成)Affect

the

distribution

and

abundance

of

organisms

(影響生物的分佈舆豐度).Figure

50.2.Distributionand

n

ar

i

hentofookangdanceduebraiCslimh

et

ani

wento,

ietrhn

se

laialdrought.nraostasAuwrthoatKangaroos/km2>2010-205-10Southeastern

Australiahas

a

wet,cool

climate.Red

kangaroosoccurinmostsemiarid

and

aridregions

ofthe

cioirp,withaetri

n

isoepreinterrelatively

low

andAustralia,based

onaerial

survey.1-50.1-1<0.1Limits

of

distributionCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummingsvariable

fromyear

to

year.Scientistorbiologist

usingobservations(觀察)

diesxtprei

i

tei

(分to佈)t

d

(解豐

))f

foorancetions(unplanaeanestonntsumedtaEcologists

(

生

態

學

家

)species.Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsSubfields

ofEcology(

生

態

學

之

次

领

域

)

gi

ytr

h,p

h

s-ai

ndposed

by

the

environment.態·eutr生r(vsoescglamaorsmwr

aanniga

n

ioorFigure50.3a.Organismalecology.Howdohumpbackwhalesselecttheircalvingareas?CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsPopulationecology(

族

群

生

態

學

)Concentratesmainlyonfactors(因子)that

affect

howmany

individualsofa

particularspecies

live

in

an

area.Figure50.3b.Populationecology.Whatenvironmentalfactorsaffectthereproductiverate

ofdeer

mice?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsCommunityecology(

群

聚

生

態

學

)Deals

with

the

whole

array

of

interacting

species

in

a

community.Figure50.3cCommunityecology.thWe

hdai

ti

soifn

icees(

種

的

歧

異

度

)that

makepecuensflverst

facup

a

particular

forest?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsEcosystemecology(

生

態

系

生

態

學

)Emphasizes

energy

flow(能量流)and

chemicalcycling(

化

學

循

環

)among

the

variousbioticandabiotic

components

(非生物舆生物組成).Figure50.3dEcosystemecology.Whatfactorscontrolphotosynthetic

productivityin

a

temperate

grasslandecosystem

(草原生態繫)?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsLandscape

ecology(景觀生態學)Dealswitharraysofecosystemsand

howtheyarearrangedinageographicregion(

地

理

位

置).Figure50.3e.Landscapeecology.Towhatextentdothetrees

liningthedrainagechannelsinthis

landscapeserveascorridorsofdispersalforforestanimals?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThe

biosphere(

生

物

圈

)-Is

the

global

ecosystem,the

sum

of

all

the

planet's

ecosystems

.(全球生態系是地球所有生態系的總和)

-The

Earth

is

the

Biosphere1.(地球是生物圈一號)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings生

物

圈

二

號(Biosphere

2)定名為生物圈2號

,是因為這是模仿第一個生物圈一地球的生態交流所

建的第二個生物圈。亦即地球是生物圈1號。生物圈2號建於亞利桑纳州的奥拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三點一英故，约五層樓高，

是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉温室。理面經人工規劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環境，擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類,以提供8名研究人員不假外界援助而得獨立生活的自足生活系統,不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡

地

，

藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蛾和螽斯横行。OCEANANNAHTHORNSCRUBMARSHDESERTINTENSIVEAGRICULTURECONSTRUCTIONPHOTOWEST

LUNGTOUR

BIOSPHERE2RAINFORESTcl區域面積(m2)體積(m3)土壤(m3)水分(m3)大氯(m3)集

约

震

業

區20003800027206035220居住区區1000110002110997熱带雨林200035000600010028900熱

带

草

原

/

海

洋

/

沼

澤2500490004000340041600沙漠140022000400040017600西肺1800150000015000南肺180015750075015000生物圈2號内各個组成部分及结構参数註：上述两“肺”的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings

Ecologyand

Environmental

Issues

·EcologyProvides

the

scientific

understanding—

underlying

environmental

issues●

Rachel

Carson

lscreditedFigure50.4with

startingthe

modernenvironmentalCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummingsmovement.·

Most

ecologists

follow

the

precautionary·

Theprecautionaryprinciple(预警原理/凖则)-

Basicallystatesthat

humans

needtobeconcerned

with

how

their

actions

affect

theenvironment.principleregarding

environmentalissues.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

C

2005

Pcarson

Education,Inc.p·Concept50.2:Interactionsbetweenorganismsand

the

environment

limit

the

distribution

of·

Ecologists—

Have

longrecognizedglobaland

regionalpatterns

of

distribution

of

organisms

within

thespeciesbiosphereCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings·

Many

naturalists

(

自

然

學

家

)—

Beganto

identifybroad

patternsofdistributionby

namingbiogeographicrealms(生物地理範圍)Figure50.5Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings(生物地理學)good

starting

point

for

understandingPredation.parasitism,AbioticfactorsNo

limitdistribution?Physica

factors·

Biogeography—

Provides

a

what

limitsthe

geographic

distribution

of

speciesWaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil

nutrients

etc.Temperature

LightSoilstructureFireMoisture,etc.becauseDispersallimitsdistribution?Area

inaccessible

Yes

orinsufficienttime(

ti

i

sf

oier

)distribution?ctecparcetoBBehaviorlimitsdistribution?

NoCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsYesHabitatselectiones

competition,

ChemicalFigure50.6disease

factorsSpecies

absentlimitNo·

Dispersal

(散佈)-

Is

the

movement

of

individuals

away

fromcenters

of

high

population

density

orfrom

their

Contributes

to

the

global

distribution

ofarea

of

originorganismsDispersal

and

Distribution(散佈舆分佈)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsNatural

Range

ExpansionsShowthe

influenceofdispersalondistribution.Figure50.7.Spreadof

igt

a

dingreeklebcsredheexpa1996breeding

populations

ofthegreat-tailedgracklerange

substantially

in(長尾白頭翁)in

theUSA

from

1974

tojust

22

years.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsSpecies

Transplants(

物

種

轉

移

)·

Species

transplants—

Include

organisms

that

are

intentionally

(有目

的地/有意地)or

accidentally(意外地/無意地)

relocated(重新定位/位移)fromtheiroriginal

distribution

i

u

i

introducednreoesich

they

havthe

communhtwptosrmneettsfecosyCan

oCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsBehaviorand

HabitatSelection·

Someorganisms-

Do

not

occupy

all

oftheirpotential

range·SpeciesdistributionMay

be

limited

by

habitatselection

behaviorCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

C

2005

Pcarson

Education,Inc.pBiotic

Factors(生物因子)·

Biotic

factors

that

affect

the

distribution

oforganismsmay

include—Interactionswithotherspecies(種間互動)—

Predation(捕

食作用)

Competition

(

競争

作

用

)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings

EXPERIMENTW.J.Fletchertestedtheeffectsoftwoalgae-eatinganimals,seaurchinsand

limpets,onseaweedRESULTSFletcherobserveda

largedifference

inseaweed

growth

between

areaswith

andwithout

sea

urchins.Both

limpets·A

specific

case

of

an

herbivore

limiting

distributionofafoodspecies:

Removal

and

AdditionOnly

urchins

removedOnly

limpets

removed

Control(both

i

ts

p

ent)August

Februarysdreanmperchinsabundance

near

Sydney,Australia.In

areas

adjacentto

a

control

site,eitherthe

urchins,the

limpets,or

bothwere

removed.CONCLUSIONRemovingboth

limpets

and

urchins

resulted

inthe

greatest

increase

ofseaweed

cover,indicatingthatbothspecieshavesomeinfluenceon

seaweed

distribution.But

since

removing

only

urchins

greatly

increasedseaweedgrowthwhileremovingonlylimpetshad

littleeffect,Fletcher

concluded

that

sea

urchins

have

a

muchosi

n

r

awweheelbi

thpet

rcwhein

e

par

dsent,easseaontewlmgrAgreatereffectthan

limpets

in

limitingseaweeddistribution.Removing

bothlimpets

and

urchins

orremoving,only

urchinscinocvre

sder

ea

i

aelelydCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings20-0Augustor

where

only

limpets100806040-Seaweedcover(%were

removed.and

urchins

removed海草覆蓋度Limpet帽具Sea

rc

inFigure

50.8February1983198319821984Abiotic

Factors(非生物因子)·

cis

t

thinact

l

f

ct

the

distribution

of—

Temperature

(

温

度

)一

Water

(

水

)—

Sunlight

(

日

光

)一

Wind(風)—

Rocksand

soil

(

岩

石

舆

土

壤

)eeuamayorsmsfacanotirgbioACopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·Environmentaltemperature—

|lsanimportant

factor

in

the

distribution

of

organismsbecauseofits

effects

onbiologicalprocessesTemperatureCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·Wateravailabilityamong

habitats—

Isanotherimportantfactor

inspecies

distributionCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsWater·Light

intensityandquality——

C|(

anaffect

photosynthesis

inecosystems·

Light—

Isalso

importanttothedevelopmentandbehavioroforganismssensitivetothephotoperiod

(

光

週

期

)SunlightCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings●

WindAmplifiestheeffectsoftemperatureonorganismsby

increasing

heatlossdue

toevaporation(

蒸

發

作

用

)andconvection(對

流

)

—

Canchangethemorphology

of

plantsCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsFigure50.9Wind·

ri

r

s

n

o

h

imalsthatfeedupon

them-Physicalstructure(物理结構)-

pH

(

酸

龄

度

)—Mineralcomposition(

礦物

组

成

)aneethtthustil

limidsaoftsncatiplisbution

ofcharactedisManRocksand

SoilCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·

Fourmajorabioticcomponents

make

up

climate

Temperature,water,sunlight,andwind·

Climate—

ls

the

prevailing

(盛行的/流行的)weather

conditionsinaparticularareaCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsClimateMacroclimate

and

microclimate

(

巨

氯

候

舆

微氯候)·

Cli

mate

patternscan

bedescribedontwoscales

Macroclimate(巨氟候),patternsonthe

global,regional,and

local

level

Microclimate(微氯候),veryfinepatterns,suchasthoseencountered

bythecommunityoforganisms

underneathafallen

logCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsGlobal

Climate

Patterns·

Earth'sglobalclimate

patterns—Aredetermined

largelybythe

inputofsolar

energyandthe

planet'smovement

inspaceCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsLowangleofincoming

sunlight低角度的入射日光Sunlightdirectlyoverhead日光正位於頭顶上方Lowangleofincoming

sunlight低角度的入射日光AtmosphereLatitudinal

variationinsunlightintensity

·Sunlight

intensityplaysa

majorpart

indetermining

the

Earth'sclimatepatternsNorth

Pole

北

極60°N30°NTropicofCancer0°(equator)Tropic

of

Capricorn30°S60SSouth

pole

南

極Figure50.10.Latitudinalvariationandsunlight

intensityCopyright2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsConStanttiltof

23.5°九月秋分September

equinox:

Equatorfacessundirectly;neitherpoletilts

toward

sun;all

regions

on

Earth

experience12hours

ofdaylight

and

12

hours

ofdarkness.六月夏至Junesolstice:

NorthernHemisphere

tilts

toward

60°Nn

0°(equator);nereisphinsinemgiebsHnbegimmerter;hseurnrtnwiNosuSeasonalvariation

insunlight

intensityMarch

equinox:

Equator

faces

sundirectly;neither

poletiltstowardsun;all

regions

on

Earth

experience

12hours

of

daylight

and

12

hours

ofdarkness.December

solstice:Northern

Hemisphere

tiltsaway

from

sun;winterbegins

in

NorthernHemisphere;summerbegins

in

SouthernHemisphere.地球因其軸的倾斜造成温度舆光强度

随地球環绕太陽而週期性變化Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings十二月冬至三月春分Figure

50.10Southern

Hemisphere.因加熱而移動的空氯在赤道两侧座生三

個主要的空氯循環,在每一個循環胞内

,上升的空氯質(蓝色)以降雨方式释出

水氯，而下降的空氯(褐色)則吸收水氯

,産生乾燥的環境。Globalaircirculationandprecipitation

patterns·Aircirculationandwind

patternsplaymajor

partsindeterminingthe

Earth'sclimatepatternsCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings全球氯流循環Figure50.10Globalaircirculationandprecipitation

patternsGLOBAL

WIND

PATTERNS

全

球

風

型

式ArcticCiro

北極圈30N0°(equator)30S60SAntarcticCircle

南

極

圈西

風

带

Westerlies東

h

季

属NortheasttradesDoluny息SoutheasttradesFigure

50.10CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings東南季属西W風es带terlies带Regional,Local,andSeasonal

Effectson

Climate·Various

features

ofthe

landscape-Contributetolocal

variationsinclimateCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsOceansandtheircurrents,and

theclimateofnearby

terrestrial2.Aircools

athighelevation.3.Coolerairsinksover

waterFigure50.11.Moderatingeffectsoflargebodies

ofwateron

climate.ThisCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings

.

slaini

aonvde,re

alat

irngrisingwarmairover

land.飞large

lakesmoderateenvironments1.Warm

airoverland

rises.figure

illustrateswhat

happensonawarmsummerday.BodiesofWater

aonags海岸山脈Figure50.12.Howmountainsaffect

rainfall.Copyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsMountains

·

Mountainshave

asignificant

effect

on

Rainfal1.As

moistairmoves

in

off

the

PacificOceanandencountersthewesternmostthrive

here.Theamount

of

sunlight

Local

temperature2.Fartherinland,precipitationincreasesagainasthe

airmoves

upandover

highermountains.Someoftheworld'sdeepestsnow

packsoccurhere.風

向

WinddirectionSierra

Nevadamountains,itflows

upward,coolsat

higheraltitudes,and

rr

o

,t

w

os

otds,dalwleosnt

oflsret'ouecarhel3.OntheeasternsideoftheSierra

Nevada,there

is

littleprecipitation.Asaresult

ofthisrainshadow,much

ofcentral

Nevada

isdesert.reachingPacific

Oceanan

area一

East

Seasonality

(

季

節

性

)·The

angle

of

the

sun

(

太

陽角

度

)-

Leadsto

manyseasonal

changes

in

localenvironmentsCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsSeasonalturnoverin

lakeswithwintericecover

Lakesaresensitivetoseasonaltemperature

changeandExperienceseasonalturnover(

季

節

性翻轉)

2.In

spring,as

the

sun

melts

the

ice,the

surface

water

warms1.In

winter,the

coldest

water

in

the

lake

(0°C)liesjustoli

°i

aatni

gsti

hbeerl

ltsht

actoifoicl

i

ny

r

ri

dini

lmy

i

etl

,ewxbstewegmnmpsolaaeawmoekndnChl

ul

f

hi

ela;

yrsic

l

g

5si

te

yh

t

w(s

pghr

)

tndde'

iberni

sgit

gt,

ysgu

fna

₂)to

the

bottom

waterseOreexonutseaogrr

teteeamr

aoeottrmewtlavyopieaecoasrveseertepelowee

Figure50.13.Seasonalturnoverinlakeswithwintericecover

CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasBenjaminCummings3.In

summer,the

lake

regains

a

distinctive

thermal

profile,withwarm

surface

water

separated

from

coldbottom

waferby

anarrowvertical

zone

of

rapid

temperature

change,called'athermocline.4.Inautumn,assurfacewatercoolsrapidly,itsinksbelowthe

underlying

layers,remixingthewateruntilthesurfacebeginstofreezeandthewinterO₂concentration

HighMediumLow-O₂

(mg/L)81624|temperatureprofile

isreestablished.2(mg/8

1281624.O₂

(mg/L)0

4

8816241Winter来hermoclineSummerLake

depth(m)lakedepth(m)O₂

(mg/L)8Lake

depth

(m)lake

depth

(mSpringAutumn81624●=C12,

Microclimate(微氯候)

·

Microclimate-

Isdetermined

byfine-scaledifferences

inabioticfactorsCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummingsea

r

Current

rangedceli

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50.14eugprCFiLong-Term

Climate

Change(長期氯候變遥)·Onewayto

predictfutureglobalclimatechange.

—

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look

backatthechangesthatoccurredpreviouslyCopyright

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2005

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Education,Inc.publishing

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Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

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2005

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Education,Inc.p·Concept

50.3:Abiotic

and

biotic

factors

influence·

Varyingcombinationsofboth

biotic

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abioticfactors-

Determinethe

natureofEarth'smany

biomes·

Biomes

(生物相、生物群落、生物群域)—

Are

the

major

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ecological

associationsthatoccupybroadgeographic

regions

of

land

orwaterthe

structure

and

dynamics

of

aquatic

biomes(水域生物相)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThedistributionof

major

aquatic

biomes·

Theexaminationofbiomes(生物相)willbegin

with

Earth'saquaticbiomes30N

TropicofGancerEquatorTropicofCapricorn

300SContihentalshelfO

bebeal

g

iczolCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsKeyLakesCoral

reefsRiversOceanic

pelagiczoneEstuariesIntertidal

zoneFigure50.15●·

Aquatic

biomes(水域生物相)—

Account

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the

largest

part

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thebiosphere

intermsofarea-

Cancontainfreshorsalt

water(淡水

或

鹹

水

)·

Oceans

Coverabout75%ofEarth'ssurface—

Haveanenormous

impactonthe

biosphereCopyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsStratification

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hta

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侵

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asBenjamin

CummingsAeutrophic

OkavangoFigure50.17Figure50.17.Okefenokee

National

WetlandReserve

inGeorgia·

Wetlands

(

淫

地

)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThe

Mississippi

Riverfarform

its

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