计算的（简要）历史

A(brief)historyofcomputingByDanePaschalBiasesAmero-EurocentricComputersciencecentricGooglecentricAncientOriginsCountingishard…TheHumanBrainAbacusNumeralsThe1700’sand1800’sComputingasajobMovedbeyondgovernmentalinabigwayIndustriesnowneedlargepoolsofcomputingpowerScientificinquiryrequiresmorebrainpowerandnumbercrunchingInventionsPascal’swheelSliderulesNapeir’sbonesJacquard’sloomprogrammable!BabbageandLovelaceCharlesBabbageMathprofessoratTrinityCollegeinCambridgeDifferenceengineAnalyticalengineMillandstore(cpuandmemory)AdaAugusta,CountessofLovelaceAmazingmathematician,helpedBabbage“firstprogrammer”HollerithandtheCensusU.S.neededhelpwiththe1890censusDr.HermanHollerith,statisticianandinventorwashiredtohelpTookpunchcardsfromtheJacquardloomandturneditintoapunchcarddatabase!Cutdownthecensustabulationby6years(from8to2)savingmillionsFoundscompanythatwouldbecomeIBMProductionofpunch-cardmachinesand

mechanicalcalculatorsElectricityandBinaryKonradZuseCivilengineer“youcansayIwastoolazytocalculatesoIinventedthecomputer”CreatedtheZ1usingbinaryandelectricalcircuitsDraftedintoGermanmilitaryforWWII,butwassoonhiredtobuildtheZ2Sawtheuseofvacuumtubesforfastercomputing,butcalculateditwouldtaketoolongtoimplement.LearningtolovetheBombeAlanTuringHiredbyEnglandtocrackcodessetbytheenigmamachine(thebombe)ElectricalmachineusinglogicaloperatorstobruteforceasolutiontoenigmasettingsTuringmachinesTuringtestandAIArtilleryandvacuumtubesENIAC(ElectronicNumericalIntegratorAndComputer)ArtilleryandbombingtablestooktoolongMilitaryhired

Dr.PresperEckertandDr.JohnMauchlyforasolutionBeganin1943,announcedin1946,cost$500,000,weighedroughly30tons,required18kvacuumtubes!Wasthoughtimpossible,toounreliableProgrammedbywire…TransistorsandtheUNIVACTransistorscameaboutfromresearchatAT&T’sBellLabsandwastheworkofBerdeen,Brattain,andShockleywasasmaller,faster,safer,cheaperandmorereliableversionofthevacuumtube1950’scensusistakingtoolong,thecensusneedshelpagainHiresthemakersoftheENIACtotakeadvantageofthetransistor.TheresultistheUNIVACI,whichpredictsthe1952presidentialelection,shockingallwithEisenhower’svictoryLanguages!WiththesuccessoftheUNIVACandotherlargecomputers,morepeoplearetakingadvantageofthem.Programmingthesecomputersistoughstuff…eitherit’sbinayorassemblycodingFORTRAM(FormulaTranslation)(JohnBackus,1954)comesaboutthehelpmathematicians.Oneofthefirst“highlevel”languagesCOBOL(CommonBusiness-orientedLanguage)(GraceHopper1959)comesabouttohelpbusinessesprogram.ERMAandMICr1955,BankofAmericaannouncesit’slatestprojectwiththeStanfordResearchInstitute:ERMAtheElectronicRecordMethodofAccountingSeekstorevolutionizethebankingindustrywithrawcomputingpowerERMAcomesequippedwithMICR(MagneticInkCharacterRecognition)allowscomputerstoreadchecksandchangestheconsumerexperienceforever.IntegratedcircuitsandthespaceraceThe“TyrannyofNumbers”Seekingtominiaturizetransistors,JockKilbyandRobertNoyceseparatelycomeupontheIntegratedcircuitCombinestransistors,resistors,capacitors,andallthewiringontoasinglechipofsemiconductormaterialSmaller,safer,faster,morereliable,easiertomake,butmoreexpensiveWasn’tuntilthemannedmissiontothemoonthattheywereputintouseonalargescale(1960ish)OfMiceandfoldersMuchlikecomputerprogramming,computerinterfacesaredesignedforandbyaspecializedgroup.Allinteractioniseitherphysicalortext.Awidergroupofindividualswereusingcomputers(theyweregettingsmallerandmoreprevalent),theyrequiredaveryspecificskillsetstouse.MachineinteractionbecomesafieldofstudyDougEngelbartinventsmouse,usesitinconjunctionwithoneofthefirstGUI’s(1964)Notthefirstinteractivetool,butonethatstuckaroundalongwiththe“office”metaphor(files,folders,projects,desktops)Theinternetandglobalthermonuclearwar1969ARPAnet,linkscomputerswithastandardprotocolfortheflowofinformation.Startedwith4universitycomputers,grewquicklyinbothsizeandstructureInnovationsincluded:email,telnet(remotecomputing),andFTP(filetransferprotocol).Asitbecamelarger,becameunsafeforstrictlymilitaryapplications(MILnet)SpawnedLocalAreaNetworks(LAN’s)NSFnet(NationalScienceFoundationnetwork)startsasaLAN,branchesouttoconnectotherLAN’s(1986),startstoreplaceARPAnet(closed1990)foruniversities,evolvesintothecurrentinternet.Rammingspeed!AndmicroprocessorsTheintegratedcircuitimprovesprocessingspeedsomuchthatmemoryspeed(especiallyfornon-sequentialmemory)becomesanissue.In1970,IntelcomesoutwiththefirstDynamicRandomAccessMemory(DRAM)RAMhadbeenaroundsince1947,thismakesitsmallerandfaster,massmarketed.1969-1971Fredrico

FagginatInteldesignsthefirstmicroprocessor,thuscompletingallofthehardwarecomponentsnecessaryforthepersonalcomputerSmalltalkandobjects1960’sand70’ssawtheriseofmanynewprogramminglanguagesincludingBASIC,C(whatcomesafterB),Pascal,andSmalltalkSmalltalkisoneofthemostinfluentialobjectorientedla