长时储能：示范项目总结-Long-Duration Energy Storage Emerging Pilot Project Summaries 2024

Long-DurationEnergyStorage:EmergingPilotProject

Summaries

SI:EPRIInsight

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Introduction

Purpose:

ThisreportsummarizesrecentpilotprojectsofLong-DurationEnergyStorage(LDES)technologies,specificallytechnologiesdevelopedbyCMBlu,EnergyDome,StorworksPower(Storworks),andRedoxBlox.1Itaimstoprovidehighlightsonthetechnologicalprocesses,performanceandcostmetrics,andpotentialviabilityasdemonstratedthroughfieldworkoftheseemergingenergystoragesolutions.Byexaminingthesepilotprojects,thereportprovidesinsightsintounderstandinghowthesetechnologiesfunctionandhowtheymayfitintoperspectiveportfoliostoenhancegridstabilityandvariablerenewableenergyutilization.Pleasenotethattheprojectionsandevaluationswithinthisreportareprimarilybasedonforward-lookingstatementsfromthemanufacturersoftheLDEStechnologiesandhavenotbeenindependentlyverifiedbyEPRI,exceptwhereexplicitlystated.

Relevance:

Insightsfromtheseenergystoragepilotprojectsofferhigh-levelqualitativeandquantitativeinformationforutilities.Theseinsights

includesummariesofperformanceandcostdata,whichareimportantforevaluatingLDESsystems.2,3Additionally,thereporthighlightsactivitiesandfindingsfromthepilottesting,providingabetterunderstandingofthestatusandmaturityofthesetechnologiesandtheirusecases.Byunderstandingtheperformance,costs,andmaturityofthesepilotprojects,utilitiescanmakemoreinformeddecisions

aboutthepotentialbenefitsofLDEStechnologiesfortheirenergyportfolio.4Moredetailsontheseandotherenergystorage

technologiescanbeobtainedthroughparticipationinEPRI'sProgram94“EnergyStorageandDistributedGeneration”andProgram221“BulkEnergyStorage.”

1EnergyStorageTechnologyDatabase(ESTD)v1.0.EPRI,PaloAlto,CA:2023.

2EPRIInsights:CurrentEvents,IndustryForecasts,andR&DtoInformEnergyStrategy.EPRI,PaloAlto,CA:2022.

3002025959

.

3Long-DurationEnergyStorage:PotentialUseCasesandTechnology.EPRI,PaloAlto,CA:2021.

3002019019.

4Long-DurationEnergyStorageBenefits.EPRI,PaloAlto,CA:2021.

3002021099

.

2©2024ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,Inc.Allrightsreserved.

EmergingLDESTechnologiesOverview

Electrochemical:Usesreversiblechemicalreactionstogenerateelectricity,withlithiumionbatteriesbeingtheprincipaltechnology.Newelectrochemicalbatteriesrepresentapromisingfrontierinlong-durationenergystorage.Thesetechnologiesuselow-costrawmaterialssuchaszincandironintheactivematerialsthatstoreenergy.Thesebatteriesarescalable,withprojectedlowmarginal

costofenergy,makingthemsuitableforapplicationsrequiredsustainedenergydelivery,suchasrenewableintegrationandbackuppower.

Mechanical:Harnesseskineticorpotentialenergytostoreandreleaseenergy.Potentialenergysystems,suchaspumpedhydro

storage,usegravityandinvolveliftingmasswhenchargingandloweringittospinageneratortocreatepowerwhendischarging.

Kineticenergysystems,suchascompressedairenergystorage(CAES),generallycompressaworkingfluidwhencharging,storingitatpressure,thenexpandingittodriveaturbinewhendischarging.Awidearrayofemergingmechanicalenergystoragesystemsarebeingdeveloped,whichpromiselowercostandhigherround-tripefficiency(RTE),alongwitheasiersiting.

Thermal:Storesandreleasesenergyintheformofheat.Heatcaneitherbestoredsensiblyusingmediasuchasconcrete,gravel,

sand,orsaltorusingaphase-changematerial,whichprovidesadditionalheatfromphasetransitions.Whencharging,themediumis

eitherheatedbyahotfluidorelectrically,andwhendischarging,aworkingfluidisheatedtoeitherdriveapowercycle,orto

provideheatdirectlytoaprocess.Thermalenergystorage(TES)hasthepotentialtobethelowestcostLDESsystem,balancedbylowerefficiencies.

Chemical:Involvescreatingalow-carbonfuelorperformingareversiblethermochemicalreactionthatcangenerateheat.Hydrogen

istheprimarylow-carbonfuelcandidateandcanbegeneratedusingelectrolysis,orchemicallythroughreformingafossilfuel,

coupledwithcarboncaptureandstorage.Othercandidatelow-carbonfuelsincludeammoniaandbio-fuels.Oncecreated,thesefuelscanbestoredforuptoseasonalperiodsandburnedinconventionalpowergenerators.Thermochemicalsystemsusea

compoundthatcombinedwithairorwatergeneratesheattodriveapowercycle,thatisthenreformedtorepeattheprocess.

3©2024ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,Inc.Allrightsreserved.

CMBlu(Electrochemical)

CMBlu'sOrganicSolidFlowbatteryisaredox(reduction-oxidation)flowbattery(RFB)containingelectrolytesinthesolidandliquidform.

Nearlyalltheenergyisstoredinacarbon-basedsolid.Theliquid

electrolyteactsasashuttle,movingchargedionsbetweenpositiveandnegativesidesthroughthebatterystacktochargeanddischarge.Theseparatetanksandstacksmakeitpossibletoscalepowerandcapacityindependently.

TechnologyBenefits

LongLifetime:Theseparationofelectrolytesintankseliminatessomemechanismsofcapacitydegradation.Thetechnologyis

projectedtohavea20-yearprojectlife,capableofover20,000cycles,withminimallossofcapacityduetocycling.

CostEffective:Abundantcarbon-basedmoleculesforthe

electrolytehavethepotentialtobelowcostwhenmanufacturedatscale.Thisincombinationwiththelonglifetimecanmakethetechnologycostcompetitiveatscale.

Figure1.SchematicoftheOrganicSolidFlowBattery

Figure1showstheoperationofCMBlu'sSolidFlowbattery.Twoexternaltankscontainingdifferentelectrolytes,onepositively

charged,andonenegativelycharged,areconnectedtothestackviapumpsthatdelivertheelectrolytestothepowermodule.

Theyarepreventedfrommixingbyathinmembraneandpass-overporouselectrodestocauseeitherachargingordischarging.

Tocharge,oxidationoccursattheanodecausingalossin

electrons,whichflowinthepowermoduleandtothecathode.Theprocessisreversedtodischarge,wheretheanode

experiencesreductionandthecathodeexperiencesoxidation.

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CMBlu(Electrochemical)

Process

TheOrganicSolidFlowbatteryismadeupoftwoexternaltanks,abatterystackandapowermoduleconnectingthebatterytothegrid.Theexternaltanks

containeitheranolyteoracatholyte(positivelyornegativelycharged

electrolyterespectively).Eachoftheelectrolytesarecomposedofanactive

solidandliquidmaterialofmatchingpotentials.Thebatterystackismadeupoffourcomponentsinarepeatingorder.Theelectrodesfacilitatetheredox

reaction.Themembraneisaninsulatorthatselectivelyallowsionmigrationbutpreventsthedifferentelectrolytesfrommixing.Currentcollectorsfacilitatetheflowofelectricchargeandconnectthestacktothegrid.Theendplatesprovidemechanicalsupportandelectricalinterfacestothepowerconversionsystem.

Thebatteryoutputisdependentonthematerialandsurfaceareaofelectrodes,thestacksize,andthekineticsoftheredoxprocess.

Pilot

CMBluiscollaboratingwithWECEnergyGroupandEPRItoinstalla1–2MWhpilotprojectatValleyPowerPlantinMilwaukee,WItotesttheperformanceofthebatterysystem,includingdischargedurationsoffivetotenhours.5Initial

testingofasingleDCmoduleprototypewassuccessfulatthepowerplantin

December2023withtestingon-siteinitializationofthemodule,severalchargeanddischargeratesandprovidingcriticallogisticalexperiencewithsea,rail,

andtrucktransport.Aspartofthepilotproject,WEC,EPRI,andCMBlu

conductedadetailedhazardmitigationanalysis(HMA)ofthebatterymodule,focusingonpotentialhazardstopersonnel.TheHMAusedtheEnergyStorageIntegrationCouncilFlowBatteryHMAGuideandprovidedinputtopilottestplansandsafetychecklists.

5“WECEnergyGroupAnnouncesProjecttoDemonstrateLong-durationOrganicFlowBatteryStorage,”

February2,2023.

/news-releases/wec-energy-group-announces-project-to-

demonstrate-long-duration-organic-flow-battery-storage-301737840.html

.

Figure2.ModularBattery(usedwithpermissionfromCMBlu)

CMBlu’sOrganicSolidFlowbatterymoduleisbeingdesignedtoenablescalability.Figure2showshowthemodulescanbe

stackedtoincreasethesystem-levelenergydensity.Eachmodulehasatargetedfootprintof21.5–26.9ft2(2–2.5m2),depending

onduration,anda50MW,250MWhsystemhasaprojectedfootprintof33,906ft2(3150m2)forthebatteryportion.

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EnergyDome(Mechanical)

EnergyDomehasdevelopedaCO2BatterysystemforLDES,utilizingcarbon

dioxideasthestoragemedium.Thissystem,whichoperatessimilarlytoCAESbutusesCO2storedabove-groundinsteadofairstoredbelow-ground.Key

featuresincludeefficientheatcaptureduringCO2compressionandaflexible,above-groundCO2gasdome,allowingfordiversesitingpossibilities.Thepilotproject,a2.5MWe/4MWhegrid-connectedunit,hassuccessfully

demonstratedthetechnology'sviabilityandwascompletedintwoyearsdespiteglobalchallenges.EnergyDomeplansalarger-scale20MWe,200MWheplantbylate2024.Thetechnologyistargetedforutilitiesand

industries,includingremoteminingoperations.

TechnologyBenefits

EnergyEfficient:EnergyDome'sCO2Battery,leveragingcommercially

availablecomponents,targetsan18-monthdevelopmentcycleandhasa

RTEof75–80%with100%depthofdischarge.Designedforalifespan

exceeding30years,itoperateswithoutcapacityorpowerdegradation.Thesystem'senergydensityis1.9kWh/ft³(67kWh/m³),surpassing

conventionalCAESsystems.A200MWhinstallationrequiresa10–12-acre(4–4.9hectares)footprintor17–20MWhe/acre(42–49.4MWhe/hectare).

CostEffective:Thecapitalcostsareestimatedat$150–220/kWh,withthelevelizedcostofstorageprojectedunder$100/MWhforearlyprojects,withthepotentialtoreduceto$50–60/MWh.Challengesincludesitingdueto

visualimpactofthedome.Thedomeisaninflatablestructurethatcanbeeasilyremovedattheendoflifeoftheproject.TheCO2Batterydoesnothaveanymajorenvironmentalimpactsasitonlyusessteel,water,andCO2initsfunctioning.

Figure3.ChargingEnergyDome'sCO2Battery

InFigure3,theCO2Battery'schargingprocessinvolvesamulti-stagecompressorpoweredbyanelectricmotor,compressingCO2tomediumpressure.Thisprocessgeneratesheat,whichisstoredintwotypesofTESsystems:aprimarypressurizedpackedparticle-bedsystemfor

directheattransfer,andasecondarytubularheatexchangersystemthatcoolstheCO2toaliquid/densephaseforstorageinabove-groundpressurevessels.

Figure4.DischargingEnergyDome'sCO2Battery

InFigure4,theCO2Battery'sdischargingprocessinvolvesreversingthechargingcycle.High-

pressureliquid/dense-phaseCO2isvaporizedandheatedbypassingthroughawater-tube

heatexchanger,servingasanevaporator,andthenthroughaTESpackedparticlebed.ThehotgaseousCO2expandsthroughaturbineconnectedtoagenerator,supplyingelectricitytothegrid.Afterexpansion,theCO2iscooledtoambienttemperatureforstorageinthedome's

bladder.Thissystemisengineeredfordailyuseovera30+yearlifespanwithoutdegradation.

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EnergyDome(Mechanical)

Process

EnergyDome'sCO2BatterysystemutilizesCO2'suniquepropertyof

transitioningtoaliquidphaseatambienttemperatureundermoderatepressure.ThestorageprocesscompressesatmosphericCO2tomediumpressure,efficientlycapturingandstoringtheheatgeneratedduring

compressionintwoTESsystems.Whenelectricityisneeded,thestoredCO2

isreheatedandexpandedthroughaturbinetogeneratepower.The

system'sarchitectureallowsforconsistentoperationover30yearswith

dailycyclingandcanaccommodatecharge/dischargecyclesrangingfrom4to24hours.TohousetherequiredsubstantialquantitiesofCO2,adome

storagestructureisneeded,which,despiteitslargefootprint,remainscost-

effectiveduetotheuseofeconomicalmaterialsandminimalisticsitepreparationrequirements.

Pilot

TheCO2Batterysystem'sprojectedRTEof75–80%hingesonthe

performanceoftheTESmodulesandtheefficiencyofthecompressorsand

turbines.AchievingthisRTEonalargescalewouldmakethesystem

especiallysuitedforapplicationsrequiringhighdepthofdischargecycling

whileavoidingthedegradationissuescommoninelectrochemicalbatteries.

ThepilotplantinSardinia,withacapacityof2.5MWe/4MWhe,has

demonstratedpromisingresults,confirmingthesystem'santicipated

operationalcapabilities.TheseoutcomeshaveplacedEnergyDome's

technologyatTechnologyReadinessLevel7,reflectingitssuitabilityfor

broadercommercialapplicationandsignalingasignificantstepforwardinsustainableenergystoragesolutions.

Figure5.CO2Battery'sDome-ShapedHousingfortheInflatableBladderHoldingtheCO2inDischargeModeatAtmosphericPressure(usedwithpermissionfromEnergyDome

Figure5displaysEnergyDome's2.5MW,4MWhCO2Batteryunitin

Sardinia,whichhasbeenoperationalsinceMay2022.Ithighlightsthe

plant'sreal-worldoperationalandgrid-supportcapabilities.EnergyDomeisalsoinadvancedplanningforacommercial-scale20MW,200MWh

plantatthesamelocation,andhasseveralagreementsforadditional

projectsinItalyandbeyond,includingwithAlliantEnergy,whichasprimewonaUnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergyawardin2023toinstalla

commercial-scaleEnergyDomesysteminWisconsin.

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StorworksPower(Thermal)

Storworksisdevelopingsystemstostoreenergyusingheat.Theyfocuson

thermalpowerplants,especiallythoseusingfossilfuels,solarconcentration,ornuclearenergy.Stackableblocksmadeofconcretematerialareusedtostore

theheat.Usingconcretehasproventobecostefficientandflexible.Chargingoccursbypassingeitherhotgas,steam,orhotairthroughsteeltubesintheconcreteblocks.Tousethestoredenergy,aworkingfluidsuchaswateror

carbondioxideispassedthroughseparatetubesintheconcreteblockstorecovertheheatanddeliverittoapowercycle.

Storworksmakesthreedifferentdesigns;differentsystemconfigurationsoffersolutionsforindustrialdecarbonization.

TechnologyBenefits

EnergyEfficient:Inanormalcombinedcycleplant,thegasturbinesmake

abouttwo-thirdsofthetotalpowerwiththeremainderbeingfromasteam-Rankinebottomingcycle.Usingtheconcreteheatrecoverysteamgenerator(HRSG),theturbinescanbesizedsmallerandrunefficientlyalldaylong,

sendingextraenergytotheheatstoragesystemwhenpowerisnotneededandreleasingthisenergywhenneeded.TheRTEis35–45%basedonthe

capabilityofthepowercyclethesystemisattachedto.

CostEffective:Unlikeotherenergystoragesystemsthatstoreheatusingspecializedmaterialsandrequireproprietarypowercyclestogenerate

energy,theStorworksconcretemodulesutilizeexistingpowerplant

hardware,includingthesteamturbine-generators,therebyreducingcapitalcostsfordeployment.Storworksanticipatesthecostofasystemexceeding10hoursofdurationretrofittedtoanexistingsteamturbineassetwouldbe$60–105/kWhe.

Figure6:StorworksBolderBlocs(usedwithpermissionfromStorworksPower,Inc.)

TheStorworksconcretemodules,showninFigure6,arelarge,flatblocks

withembeddedpipessetintothem.Eachtubehasabout2inches(5cm)ofconcretesurroundingthetubeenablingconductiveheattransfer.The

modules,called"BolderBlocs,"areabout40feet(12m)long,allowingthemtobeshippedonaregularflatbedtruck.Wheninstalled,theyarestacked

andconnectedusinganetworkofpipesanddistributionmanifolds.The

finalstackedassemblyiscoveredwithhigh-temperaturerockwool

insulationandcladwithwaterproofmetalsheetsforweatherprotection.Thefootprintisexpectedtobe>500MWhe/acre(1235MWhe/hectare).

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Figure7:StorworksPlantGastonPilot(usedwithpermissionfromSouthernCompany)

TheConcreteThermalEnergyStorage(CTES)pilotplant,showninFigure7,consistsof7layersof

BolderBlocsstackedinabrickwork-likepatternalongwithanadditionalcoolingblocklayeratthe

bottomneededtoinsulatethefoundationsduringoperation.SupercriticalsteamfromthehostsiteenterstheCTESduringcharging(topright),warmingtheCTESandtherebygeneratinghigh-pressurecondensatethatisfurthercooledusingtheheatexchanger(bottomleft)beforebeingdepressurizedandstoredinalocalvessel(topleft).Thiscondensateisreusedduringdischargebypumpingtohighpressureandreversingtheflow,enteringtheCTESatthebottombeforebecomingsuperheated

steam,whichismeasuredandventedtoasafelocation.

StorworksPower(Thermal)

Pilot

TheCTESpilotplant,showninFigure7,isa10-MWhescale(2.5MWex4

hours)systematAlabamaPower'sPlantGastoninWilsonville,AL.LeadbyEPRIandfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,thisfacilityisdemonstratingthetechnology'sperformanceforthesteam-heatedversionbychargingusing

supercriticalsteamatapressureof3500psig(240barg)fromthehostplant

anddischargingatvariouspressuresanddurationstoquantifyperformance

andflexibilityofthesystemthroughoutthefullcharginganddischargingcycles.

Process

Fortheelectricalchargingversion,hotairisgeneratedviathermalheating

elementsandisfedthroughtheconcreteblocksfromthehotendtothecoldend.Thiscreatesa"thermocline"effectwithintheconcrete,forminga

consistenttemperaturezoneforheattransferfromthehottothecoldpart.Asthechargingprogresses,thetemperatureoftheblockmaterialincreases,

approachinghotairinlettemperature.Thisallowshotterairtoheatcooler

concretematerialfurtherintotheassembly.Fordischarge,theprocessis

reversedwithcoolairbeingheatedbytheblocksbeforebeingpassedtoaheatrecoverysteamgeneratortoraisesteamforpowergeneration.

NextSteps

StorworkshasbeendevelopingseveralvariantsoftheCTESsystem:

.FlexJoule:Designedtobechargedusingelectricityfromcurtailedrenewablesources,thisdesignusesairasaheattransferfluidtochargeanddischargetheBolderBlocsandaconventionalHRSGtoraisesteamforheatandpower.

.FlexOps:Steam-integratedBolderBlocsthatchargefromanddischargetoafossilplanttoreduceplantcyclingandlimitthenumberofstarts

Storworksisactivelylookingforcommercialopportunitiesforthesesystemsforstand-aloneindustrialdecarbonizationandfossilretrofittingapplications.

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RedoxBlox(Chemical)

TheRedoxBloxsystem,leveragingmagnesium-oxide(MgXO3)pellets,operatesthroughtwomodes:charginganddischarging.

Charging:MgXO3pelletsareheatedfrom1830°F(1000°C)to2730°F(1450°C)withina

pressurevessel,inducinganendothermicreductionreaction.ThissplitsMgXO3intoMgXO2andreleasesoxygengas.Thisreactionstoresenergyinthesystem,withacapacityof

approximately64,000Btu/ft³(660kWhth/m³).Discharging:Pressurizedairintroduced

intothevesselreactswithMgXO2,reversingthepreviousreactionandreformingMgXO3.Heatgeneratedduringthisreactionisusedinagasturbine(GT)-generatortoproduce

electricityat50-55AC-AC%RTEwhenintegratingwithacombined-cycleGT.Thesystem'sdesigniscompatiblewithstandardGT-generators,enablingittointegrateintoexisting

energyinfrastructures.Thestoragesystemcanalsoproducehightemperatureheatforindustrialheatingapplicationswith90-95heat-heat%RTE.

TechnologyBenefits

HighEnergyDensityandLowPelletCost:RedoxBloxachievescompactenergystoragewithhighenergydensity–itsfootprintis1500–1800

MWhe/acre(3704–4444MWhe/hectare).TheproductioncostofitsMgXO3chemicalpelletsisanticipatedtorangefrom$600–800/ton

(equivalentto$1.8–2.4/kWhth).

CommerciallyCompatible:RedoxBloxisworkingtowardsbothindustrialheatingandelectricalpowergeneration.RedoxBloxismakingitssystemdirectlycompatiblewithcommercialturbomachinery,byrepurposing

existinginfrastructure,includinganaturalgascombinedcycleplant's

heatrecoverysteamgenerator,steamturbines,andelectricalswitchgear.

Figure8.SchematicoftheRedoxBloxThermochemicalEnergyStorageSystem

Figure8detailstheprocessflowoftheRedoxBloxthermochemicalenergy

storagesystem.Chargingmodestartswithheatingviaelectrodespassing

electricalcurrentthroughtheparticlebed,whichraisesthetemperatureoftheMgXO3particlebedwithinapressurevessel.Thisheatinducesachemical

reactionthatstoresenergy.Insulationbyfirebrickandhigh-temperature

materialsensuresminimalthermalloss.Oxygenproducedduringthismodeis

expelledbyanO2blower.Dischargemodestartswithcompressedairfedtotheparticlebed.Oxygenintheairisabsorbedandreleaseschemicalenergyas

heat.Theheatedairfromtheparticlebeddrivesaturbine,generating

electricityforthegrid.Thisdiagramillustratestheenergystorageprocess,fromintakeairtoelectricitygeneration,highlightingthesystem'skeycomponents

andthermalmanagementstrategy.

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RedoxBlox(Chemical)

PilotDesignCharacteristics

.Nominalstoragecapacity:100kWhth

.Two-thirdsratioofchemical-sensibleheatstorage

.Powerinput:15kWe(electricallyresistiveheaters)

.Thermalpoweroutput:10–20kWth

.Coreoperatingtemperature:1832–2642°F(1000–1450°C)

.Pressurerange:2.4–72.5psia(0.2–5bara)

.Surfacetemperature:<185°F(85°C)

.Bedpressuredrop:<0.15psi(1kPa)

Systemcontrolsweredevelopedtoestablishpressurecontrolloops,setacombinedpowerinputtothesystem,holdaconstanttemperatureovernight,andpreventpressureor

temperatureinthereactorfromsurpassingsafelimits.6

NextSteps

Movingforwardfortheelectricalpowerapplication,RedoxBloxwasrecentlyawarded$9M

fromtheCaliforniaEnergyCommissionfora10MWhth,100kWeprojecttostartoperationin2026.Thesystemwillbemoreoptimizedforheattransferandthepreventionofheatloss,and

itwillreduceassemblyandmaintenanceissuesexperiencedbythepilotsystem.Asafollowup,RedoxBloxisdevelopingoptionstodemonstratethenextscalewith2MWepower

capacity.

Figure9.RedoxBloxEnergyStorageModules(a)and(b)(usedwithpermissionfromRedoxBlox)

Figure9underscorestheprogressionofRedoxBlox'stechnologyfrominitialconcepttolarger-scaleprototypes,eachstepvalidatingandrefiningthesystem'scapabilities.Thesuccessfuloperationofearlierprototypeslaidthegroundworkforthedevelopmentofasmall-scalepilot,drivingthe

technology'spotentialtowardpracticalapplication.

(a)Sub-ScalePrototype(picturedontheleft):Featurestheadvanced10kWhthcapacity

prototype,whichunderwentover1400hoursofcharge-dischargecyclingin2021,highlightingthesystem'schemicalstability.

(b)Small-ScalePilot(picturedontheright):Featurescommercial-designedtemperaturesandpressureswithsimulatedchargeanddischargemodesat100kWhthcapacity,validatingcontrolstrategiesandcapabilities.

RedoxBloxisalsodevelopingitstechnologyforindustrialheatingapplications.Forscale-up,

R