Unit7CulturalVariationsinNegotiationStyles-副本市公开课一

Unit7CulturalVariationsinNegotiationStylesLivetogetherlikebrothersanddobusinesslikestrangers./info_8460645_crosscultural-negotiation-styles.html1/116Concept:mayapplytotheideaformedafterconsiderationtoanywidelyacceptedofwhatathingoughttobe<asocietywithnoconceptofprivateproperty>

Conception:ofteninterchangeablewithconcept,stressestheprocessofimaginingorformulatingandoftenappliestoapeculiarorindividualidearatherthantoawidelyheldone<thewriter'sconceptionofsuchasituation>构思，构想；概念，

摘自TheMerriam-WebsterDictionaryofSynonymsandAntonyms2/116BewareofGreeksbearinggifts

MeaningDon'ttrustyourenemies.OriginAnallusiontothestoryofthewoodenhorseofTroy,usedbytheGreekstotricktheirwayintothecity.ItisrecordedinVirgil'sAeneid,Book2,19BC:"Donottrustthehorse,Trojans.Whateveritis,IfeartheGreeksevenwhentheybringgifts."《埃涅阿斯纪》（古罗马诗人维吉尔写史诗，叙述埃涅阿斯在特洛伊沦陷后到意大利建新国经过）3/116LatinAmerican“toahurrieddemand,aleisurelyreply.”personalrelationshipareimportantexpressive,ofteninvolveloudexchanges,enjoybargainingandtendtomakeconcessionslowly4/116CasesLowcontextcultureVSHighcontextcultureGeorgeBushLeeIacoccaexplicitanddirectdemandsdamagingthenegotiationshardtogivedirectandconfrontivefeedbacktopoorperformance5/116InhisbookBeyondCultures(publishedin1976byAnchorPress/Doubleday,inNewYork),Halldistinguishesamongculturesonthebasisoftheroleofcontextincommunicationandclassifyculturepatternsintohigh-contextcultureandlow-contextculture.High-contextCulture&Low-contextCulture6/116ContextAccordingtoHall,contextreferstothestimuli,environment,ambience['æmbiəns](周围环境)surroundinganevent.Hallarrangedlow-andhigh-contextcountriesonacontinuumasfollows:German

NorthAmerican

French

Spanish

GreekChineseGerman-Swiss

Scandinavian

English

ItalianMexican

ArabJapaneseLCculturesHCcultures7/116High-contextcultureHighcontexttransactionsfeaturepre-programmedinformationthatisinthereceiverandinthesetting,withonlyminimalinformationinthetransmittedmessage.TeaCeremony

8/116Theteaceremonyisaculturalactivityinvolvingtheceremonialpreparationandpresentationoftea.Themannerinwhichitisperformed,ortheartofitsperformance,iscalledTeaceremony.Alloftheseteaceremoniesandritualscontain"anadorationofthebeautifulamongthesordidfactsofeverydaylife",aswellasrefinement,aninnerspiritualcontent,humility,restraintandsimplicity.静心、静神，有利于陶冶情操、去除杂念9/116Low-contextcultureLowcontexttransactionsarethereverse.Mostoftheinformationmustbeinthetransmittedmessageinordertomakeupforwhatismissinginthecontext.AnAmericanstandingonchairinrestaurantgivingspeechathisleavinghishometown

10/116Inhigh-contextculturesmostoftheinformationisinthephysicalcontextorisinternalizedinthepeoplewhoareapartoftheinteraction.Verylittleinformationisactuallycodedintheverbalmessage.Inlow-contextcultures,mostoftheinformationiscontainedintheverbalmessage,andverylittleisembeddedinthecontextorwithintheparticipants11/116Casestudy

A75-yearoldChinesescholarhadjustmadethe21-hourflightfromBeijing,andhewasmetattheairportbysomefriendswhoexclaimed,“Youmustbeverytired!”Hisresponsewas“It’sOK.”However,anAmericantravelerfromtheU.StoBeijinggotofftheplaneafter24hoursofcontinuoustraveland,inresponsetothesamecomment,“Youmustbetired!”replied“Tired!I’veneverbeensotiredinmylife!”12/116Thiscasecanreflectdifferentexpressionsbetweenhigh-contextculturesandlow-contextcultures.Membersoflow-contextculturesputtheirthoughtsintowords.Theytendtothinkifthoughtsarenotinwords,thenthethoughtswillnotbeunderstoodcorrectlyorcompletely.Buthigh-contextcultureshavefewertendenciestotrustwordstocommunicate，meaningshouldbeinferredfromthecontexttohelpclarifyandcompletethemessage.13/116SomeFeaturesofHC&LCHigh-contextestablishsocialtrustfirstvaluepersonalrelationsandgoodwillagreementbyrelationsandgoodwillnegotiationsslowLow-contextgetdowntobusinessfirstvalueexpertiseandperformanceagreementbyspecific,legalisticcontextnegotiationsasefficientaspossible14/116Culture’sInfluence

ontheBusinessContextBusinessnegotiationisintertwinedwithculturalexchange.Thisreallyisduetoglobalization,whichisaresultofgrowthinU.S.andforeignmultinationalindustriessincethe1960s.15/116Culturaldifferencesplayasignificantroleinnegotiationstyles.Bothspokenandnonverbalcommunicationcanimpactadelicatenegotiationbetweentwoormoreparties.Takingthetimetolearnaboutculturaldifferencesandbusinessetiquetteisanimportantpartofpreparingforanyimportantbusinessnegotiation.

16/116Fornow,allbusinessisnegotiating,andallnegotiatingiscommunicating.

—D.A.Foster

BargainingAcrossBorders17/116Objectives

TodefinetheinterculturalnegotiationprocessTodiscusstheimpactofculturaldifferencesoninternationalnegotiationTodistinguishnegotiationstylesandstrategies18/116Warm-upquestions

1.Regardingthedecision-makinginChinesebusinessnegotiation,whichstyleismoresalient?Consensus-oriented,majorityvotingorauthority-oriented?2.Whotendstobegoal-oriented,orrelationship-oriented,AmericansorChinese?19/116DefinitionofNegotiationVariesTheverydefinitionofnegotiationcanvaryfromculturetoculture.lowcontextcultures,negotiationusuallymeansachievingagoodoutcomeforbothpartiesthroughadiscussionofthereasonsandfactsinvolved.highcontextcultures,negotiationhasasitscoreelementtherelationshipbetweenthetwoparties.20/116Goal-orientedAmericanRelationshiporientedChinese21/1166)WhenonecomparesAmericansandJapanese,whotendstohavedetailedwrittenagreements?Whotendstopreferbriefdocumentsandvaluesgentlemen’sagreements(君子协定）?22/1163.WhatistheJapanese’normforthedecision-making?Consensus-buildingorindividual-oriented?

Consensus-building4.DoestheSaudisconsiderprotocolveryimportant?Why?5.WhenonecomparesAmericansandFrench,whohasmorecommunicationcomplexityandinvolvesmorenonverbalmessages?23/116Differencesinwaysofthinking,behaving,andinmanagingconflicthaveaprofoundimpactonhowsuccessfullyorunsuccessfullythepartiesareabletonegotiateorconductbusinesstransactions.24/116Culturaldifferencescangeneratemisunderstandings,sowtheseedsofdistrust,and/orgeneratenegativeemotionsamongthenegotiators.Whenmanagersdifferintheirbasicthoughtprocesses,misunderstandingsareallbutinevitable.25/1161.CommunicationinNegotiationNegotiationisadiscussionbetweentwoormoredisputantswhoaretryingtoworkoutasolutiontotheirproblem.Thisinterpersonalorinter-groupprocesscanoccuratapersonallevel,aswellasatacorporateorinternational

(diplomatic)level.26/116Approachingnegotiations

Formalnegotiations:Informalnegotiationsbusinesspeopletalkaboutunitprice(单价）,conditionsforatimelydeliveryclausesforcompensations,investmentproportionsforajointventure.27/116Informalnegotiations:

e.g.youtalktoyourbossaboutthepayraiseortheholidays,youcontactyourdebtorabouttheoverduepayment,youclaimcompensationtothesupplierforawrongdispatchofmerchandise,youaskyoursubordinatestofinishtheworkaccordingtothescheduledtimetable28/116InterculturalnegotiationMoran&Stripp(1991):interculturalnegotiationinvolvesdiscussionsofcommonandconflictinginterestsbetweenreasonsofdifferentculturalbackgroundswhoworktoreachanagreementofmutualbenefit.NegotiationstakeplacewithinthecontextofthefourC’s:commoninterest,conflictinginterests,compromiseandcriteria.29/116ThefourC’s1)Commoninterestconsidersthatbothpartiesinthenegotiationshare,have,orwantsomethingthattheotherpartyhasordoes.30/116TheFourCs2)Areasofconflictinginterestsincludepayment,distribution,profits,contractualresponsibilities,andquality.31/116TheFourCs3)Compromise

includesareasofdisagreement.Althoughawin-winnegotiatedsettlementwouldbebestforbothparties,thecompromisesthatarenegotiatedmaynotproducethatresult.32/116TheFourCs4)Thecriteriaincludetheconditionsunderwhichthenegotiationstakeplace.e.g.Mynegotiationwithaforeignpartner:Redstylist,bluestylist,33/116NegotiatingRedstylist

WantsomethingfornothingTrytowinbyshowingtheyarestrongerthantheotherpersonSeenegotiationasashort-termactivityUsetricksandpressuretogetwhattheywant34/116NegotiatingBluestylistWanttotradesomethingforsomethingTrytosucceedbycooperatingwiththeotherpersonSeenegotiationasalong-termactivity.Donotusetricks.Theythinkabouteachother’sinterests.35/116Mono-culturalvs.interculturalenvironmentInamono-culturalenvironment,thenegotiationprocessismorepredictableandaccurateTherearemanymorechallengesinaninterculturalenvironmentthaninamono-culturalsetting.

Languageandculturalbarriers.differentculturesdonotsharethesamewaysofthinking,feelingandbehavior.36/116TheNegotiationstyleyouusesoeffectivelyathomecanbeineffectiveandinappropriateinanothercountry

37/116II.InterculturalNegotiationVariablesInadditiontotheconventionalpreparationforanynegotiation,theneedforextensivestudyoftheculturescannotbeoverstressed.Thefocusofthesepreparationsshouldbeontheculture,notthelanguage.38/116StephenWeiss’variablesofnegotiationManyscholarshaveidentifiedvariablesaffectinginterculturalnegotiations.Stephen

Weiss(1988)proposestwelvevariablesofnegotiationinthesevenculturalgroups–Americans,Chinese,French,Japanese,Mexicans,Nigerians,andSaudis.39/116Foreaseofuse,theformconsistsof5“blocks”ofthe12points.Eachofthemrepresentsafocalpointinidentifyingaculturalimpact:40/116SummaryofTwelveVariables(1)GENERALMODEL1.BasicConceptoftheNegotiationProcessdistributivebargaining(分配式谈判）/jointproblem-solving/debate/contingencybargaining/nondirectivediscussion2.MostSignificantTypeofIssuesubstance/relationship-based/procedural/personal-internal41/116SummaryofTwelveVariables(2)

ROLEOFTHEINDIVIDUAL3.SelectionofNegotiators

knowledge/negotiatingexperience/personalattributes/status4.Individuals’Aspirations(愿望）individualcommunity5.Decision-makinginGroupsauthoritativeconsensual42/116SummaryofTwelveVariables(3)INTERACTION:Dispositions6.OrientationtowardTimemonochronicpolychronic7.Risk-takingPropensity（倾向）highlow8.BasesofTrustExternalsanctions/other’sreputation/intuition/sharedexperiences43/116SummaryofTwelveVariables(4)INTERACTION:Process

9.

ConcernwithProtocol

informalformal

10.CommunicationComplexitylowhigh

Complexity:degreeofrelianceonnonverbalcuestoconveymessages

44/11611.NatureofPersuasiondirectexperience/logic/tradition/dogma教条/emotion/intuitionEmpirically-basedreasonsAppealtoemotions/dogmaArgumentationinglobalnegotiationsinvolvesablendoflogic,emotionanddogma45/116SummaryofTwelveVariables(5)

OUTCOME12.FormofAgreementcontractualimplicit

Amongthetwelvevariablesabove,therearesometie-ins(关联）andoverlaps.e.g.thecommunicationcomplexityrelatestothenatureofpersuasionandformofagreement,aswellas,howtheindividual’saspirationsaffecttheselectionofnegotiators.46/116Selectionofnegotiators:Criteria:negotiatingexperience,status,knowledgeofthesubject,personalattributesNegotiationskill:recordofsuccess,reputation,particularskills47/116individuals’aspirationsInsomecultures,individualisseenveryimportant:Inothercultures:individualsaresubordinatetothehomenegotiatingpartyandpersonalambitionsarecontained.48/116Decision-makingingroupsDecisionsmade:ByIndividualsoragroup?Consensus-oriented,MajorityvotingAuthority-oriented49/116OrientationtowardtimeThevalueoftimediffersfromonegrouptoanother:LimitedanditshouldbeusedwiselyPlentifulandalwaysavailable50/116Risk-takingpropensitySomecultures:opentonewideasandunexpectedsuggestionsOthercultures:prefertoremainwithintheexpectedboundaries51/1169.Concernwithprotocol

DegreeofformalityandinformalitySaudisAmericans52/116Formofagreement

ExplicitorimplicitagreementExplicit:detailedforms,writtencontractsthatcovermostcontingenciesandbindpartieslegallyImplicit:consistofbroad,generalprinciplesoftenagreedtoorally53/1161.1Differencesinfocus

Focusmaybepositiveornegative;itmaybeexplicitorimplicit;itmaybegeneralorspecific.54/116Culturesthatemphasizecommunicationasatoolforarticulatingspecificgoalsinordertoaccomplishthemtendtolookuponnegotiationsasaseriesofpointsto"settle".Theirlanguageinnegotiationsisexplicitandzeroesinonwhathasyettobeagreed.55/116E.g.Americans:direct&explicitapproach"Whatdoyoustillnotlikeaboutthisdetailofproductdesign?”

--questionsandnegativepointsofdisagreementWesterners:specificFocusonparticulars,esp.unresolvedonesandaddressthemonebyone(sequential)56/116Butculturesthatusecommunicationtoencourageharmony,preserveface,anddeveloplong-termrelationshipsarenotcomfortablewithdirectandexplicittalk.E.g.JapanandChina:indirect&implicitapproachgettingstraighttosomepointmightresultinconfrontationandnegativeemotions--evenanger.

57/116Asians:generalemphasizethepositivesideoftheagreementnotaskpointedquestions(notenjoybeingaskedsuchquestions)beginwithgeneraltermsregardunresolvedissuesaspotentiallyresolvedbecauseofthedevelopingrelationship(simultaneous)58/116TheChinesestrategist

andphilosopherSunTzuwroteaboutdiffusingconflicts(扩散冲突）thisway:Indirecttactics,efficientlyapplied,areinexhaustible

asheavenandearth,unendingastheflowofriversandstreams;likethesunandmoontheyendbuttobeginagain;likethefourseasons,theypassawaybuttoreturnoncemore.

故善出奇者，无穷如天地，不竭如江河。终而复始，日月是也；死而复生，四时是也。用兵作战，总是以正兵当敌，以奇兵取胜。所以，善于出奇制胜人，其战术改变，就像天地万物那样无穷无尽，像江河之水那样通流不竭.

59/116HonorGroupmembership,whenitishighlyvalued,canimpactnegotiationsinanumberofways.E.g.ArabcountriesandKoreamaybemotivatedtogainthebestadvantageforthehonoroftheirgroup.60/116Collectivistculturesverymuchrelatedtoateam'sdecision-makingprocess(consensus-basedprocess)lengthydiscussionsofthegroupbeforethenegotiations—lessabletochangeIndividualistculturesIndividualshaveauthoritytomakedecisionsflexibleandopentochange61/116EmotionInsomehigh-contextcultures,publicdisplayofemotionisasignofimmaturityandapotentialcauseofshametothegroup.62/116Japanesenegotiatorswillclosetheireyes,orlookdown,orresttheirheadagainsttheirhandandshadetheireyesinordertoconcealanemotionsuchasanger.Similarly,Thaiskeeppotentiallydisruptive(引发混乱破坏性)emotionsfromshowingintheirfaces.63/116Koreans,Chinese,andotherAsiansalongwithJapaneseandThaishaveearnedthedescriptor"inscrutable”(难以了解,不能预测)

fromWesternersbecauseoftheirlearnedculturalpracticeofavoidingafacialdisplayofstronganddisruptiveemotion.

64/116High-contextculturesvalueharmonyinhumanencounters,andmembersavoidsendinganynonverbalmessagesthatcoulddestroyharmony.65/116Yetotherhigh-contextcultures,forexampleintheMiddleEast,putahighpriorityondisplaysofemotion(althoughnotanger)toemphasizethesincerityofthepositionbeingputforward.66/116Inlow-contextcultures,adeliberateconcealmentofemotionisconsideredtobeinsincereorpoker-faced.Membersoflow-contextcultureshavelearnedandhabituallyusealargevocabularyoffacialexpressionsthatsignaltheemotionaspeakerfeels.67/116SilenceSilenceasanonverbalcommunicationtoolcanbeveryeffectiveinnegotiations.Inlow-contextcultureswhereideasareexplicitlyencodedintowordsandunspokenideasaremoredifficulttorespondto,silencemakeslow-contextnegotiatorsuneasy.Anditindicatesarupturehasoccurred,abreakintheprocessofcommunicating.68/116Silenceoftenmeansunhappinessinlow-contextcultures.Evenwhennomessageaboutunhappinessisintended,silenceinlow-contextculturesindicatesarupture(割裂)

hasoccurred,abreakintheprocessofcommunicating.69/116Negotiatorsfromlow-contextculturesgenerallyareuncomfortablewithsilence.

Theyoftenfeelresponsibleforstartingconversationorkeepingitgoing.Theyalsousesilenceasatactic.70/116High-contextculturesarecomfortablewithsilence.e.g.Japanesespeakersarecomfortablewithsilenceinnegotiationsanddonothurrytofillitupwithspeech.71/1162.CulturalVariationsinConductingBusiness2.1NegotiationatmosphereAmericans----anattitudeofeconomicgain,expectotherstodisplay“Americanprofessionalism”;notinterestedinlong-termrelationship;efficiency,compromise;ability;trustcounterpartsattheonsetFrench----distrustcounterpartsinthebeginning;seethemselvesasexperienced;formalhospitality72/116Japanese—socialization,establishlong-termrelationship;relyontrustbetweenthepartiesandimplicitunderstandingChinese—mutualinterestsandfriendships,socialization;expectfavorabletermsMiddleEasterners,BraziliansandMexicans—personalrelationship,hospitality;trustandrespect;initiatedwithpre-negotiationsocialgraces73/1162.2Detail:Depthvs.BreadthAmericans—impersonalandmission-driven,openlychallenged1)Icanhandleitbymyself.2)PleasecallmeSteve.3)PardonmyFrench.4)Let’sgettothepoint.5)Speakup;whatdoyouthink?6)Let’sputourcardsonthetable.7)Adealisadeal.74/116ExpressindividualismMakepeoplefeelrelaxedbybeinginformalToexcuseprofanity[prə’fæniti](沾污神圣不敬)TospeedupdecisionToavoidsilenceToconveytheexpectationofhonestyToindicatethattheagreementwillbehonored75/116Chinese:TeaandsocialtalkSlowstarttowarmupandfollowedbytentativesuggestionsTechnicalcompetence,largedelegation,inadequateinterpreters,fewerlawyersIntermediaryDelay,indecision76/1162.3CommunicationstyleAmericans:

conveywarmth,sincerityandconfidence--readytobargain&compromise--English--employthreats,warnings,pushiness--expressbluntly率直地--silenceasuncomfortableandtrouble77/116TheBritish:kind,friendly,sociable,agreeable,flexibleandresponsive(comparedwithAmericans)--moresilenceandlessegalitarian主张平等--interruptless--politeandindistinctstyle含糊78/116Japanese:verypoliteandlessaggressive--seeminglyacceptingandpassive→appeareasilypersuaded--littlereactionexceptnodding--longpause,notrushed,patient,nointerruption--self-restrained,seeksimplesymbolicexpression→covert掩饰,fragmentedexpression--silence,harmony79/116MiddleEasterners:intuitive-affective,notbasedonreasoningGermans:clear,firm,assertive--notcompromise--frequentlyinterrupt--notaskmanyquestionsbutdisclosealot80/116Chinese:harmony,saveface,relationship--avoidopenconflicts--avoidlosingface--slowconcessions让步--refrainfromsmalltalk--notaccepthypotheticalexamples假设81/116Germanybusinessmenareveryproud,andhavestrongself-confidence,theyattachgreatimportancetothecontract,theymakeitveryclearwhattheprices,conditionsandwaysofactingare.

82/116Inaddition,Germanybusinessmenhaveseriousprinciplesaboutinterpersonalrelationshipandtheyfocusonpersonalcredit.83/116French:confrontationalandcompetitive--frequentlyemploy“no”--insistontheuseofFrench--long-winded(冗长)

negotiation--stressonreason--noteasilyacceptnewinformation--welcomedebateanddissent84/116FranceItisknowntoallthatpeopleinFrancetakegreatprideabouttheirnationsandmostlytheirlanguageFrench.Therefore,duringthenegotiation,theypersistinspeakingFrench,meanwhiletheaccuracyofFrenchoftenhelpthemalot.85/116Attheverybeginning,Frenchnegotiatorstendtomakeefforttofindwhattheircounterpartsdemandsandrequestare,andonlyattheveryendofnegotiationtheyshowtheircards,whichmakesnegotiatorswhoarefromothercountries,especiallyAmericansconsiderFrenchbusinessmantobesly.

86/116Inthemeeting,Frenchbusinessmenliketoconductlogicalanalysisaboutallthesubjects,sothenegotiationoftenwentonredundantly.87/116Frenchmenneverbelieveinthe"friendship"builtupintheearlyperiod,andtheydon'tliketocallpeople'snamestraightly,takeoffcoatorlistentopeopletalkingabouttheirpersonalorfamilyaffair.88/116Theynevercompromise,buttheycanalwayskeepgentleandcalm,andstatetheiropinionorstandrepeatedly.89/116Mexicans:rhetoricanddeductive推论--playtheweakersideforsympathy--compromise=threattodignity--emphasisoncontemplationandintuition--standcloser,physicalcontacttoshowconfidence90/116Brazilians:aggressive--alotofcommands,no’s,you’s--notsilent--frequenttouching--facialgazing--competeforfloor抢话”强调是“抢”，也就是在他人说话以前就抢先说话91/1163.CulturalVariationsinSelectingNegotiatorsCulturesvaryinchoosingindividualstosendtothenegotiatingtable.Thesecriteriaincludenegotiatingexperience,status(seniority,politicalaffiliation政治背景,sex,ethnicties,orkinship),knowledgeofthesubject,andpersonalattributes(affability,loyalty,andtrustworthinessintheeyesoftheprincipal).92/116AmericanTypicallyinvoketheabilitycriterionandchoosetheirnegotiatorsonthebasisoftheirsubstantiveknowledgeoftheissuesatthetableandontheirnegotiatingexperience;thegender,ageorsocialstatusofthenegotiatorcanbeincidental.93/116ChineseLargeteamsofvariedcompositiontendtobeused.Theyexpecttodealwithsomeoneofauthorityandstatus.FrenchStatusisthemajorcriterion,althoughabilityisgaininginuse.Similarityinpersonalityandbackgroundisimportant.94/116IranianBasedonage—oldest:leaderSaudisIngovernmentorbusiness,negotiatorstendtobemalesselectedonthebasisofstatus(familyandpersonalties)andloyalty.95/116JapaneseAteamofindividualsisselectedonthebasisstatus(sex,age,seniority)andknowledge.--leader:at40,members:late30,womenrarelyparticipatingBritishThestatusandroleofthenegotiatorsarecrucial.96/116MexicansNegotiatorsareselectedonthebasisofstatus(politicalaffiliation,relatives)andpersonalattributes.MiddleEasternersSimilartoJapanese97/1164.CulturalVariationsinDecision-makingAmericanMadebyindividualsChineseMadeauthoritativelyFrenchHighlycentralized98/116JapaneseConsensusbuildingisthenorm.MexicansHighlycentralizedSaudisHighlycentralizedbutconsultative99/116Problem-solvingProcessAmericansviewnegotiationsasproblem-solvingsessionspreoccupiedwiththepersonwhomakesthedecisionanddirecttheirproposalstohimrelyonrationalthinkingandconcretedatapersuasionisfactualinductive100/116Frenchmoredebatethanbargainlessflexiblelong-rangeviewconservative,safedecisionmaker101/116Japaneseheavilyonlevelexpertiseslowinproducingconclusions,fastinimplementationsticktodecisionsdecisionsbasedondetailedinformationratherthanpersuasionMiddleEasternersintuitive-affective,notbasedonreasoning102/1165.FormofAgreementNegotiationsareenteredintoonlyforthepurposeofreachinganagreement.Anagreementisanexchangeofconditionalpromisesinwhicheachpartydeclaresthatitwillactinacertainwayonconditionthattheotherpartiesactinaccordancewiththeirpromises.103/116Awin-winstrategy

Thekeytoeffectivenegotiatingistocreatenewissuesandthusincreasethealternativesforeachpartytobenefit,i.e.findawin-winalternativebywhichbothsidescanbenefit.104/116TheExampleThereweretwosistersarguingoverthepossessionofanorange.Onesisterwantedtodrinkthejuice,theother,tousethepeelinbakingacake.Theyagreedtocutitinhalf,andtherebyoverlookedthealternativebywhichbothwoulddoubletheirbenefits:onetakeallthepeelandtheothertakeallthejuice.105/116Formofagreementvariesfromculturetoculture.Theyseemtoclusteraround2categories:explicitandimplicitforms.(generalorspecific)▼Explicitforms—detailed,writtencontractsthatcovermostcontingenciesandbindpartieslegally▼Implicitforms—consistofbroad,generalprinciplesoftenagreedorally(SeeTable)106/116FormofAgreement

AmericanDetailedwrittenagreementswhicharetobelegallybinding

ChineseWritten