初中英语语法知识总结

./答：下面是初中英语语法总结,你可参考学习,或许有不全面的地方,欢迎你有不懂的问题再具体提问。另外,我个人认为猜题对于提高考试成绩没有多大作用和意义,并不可取,建议你进行全面复习,打下扎实的基础知识,以不变应万变。顺祝复习顺利!语法总复习第一节名词与代词名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。其中,个体名词和集体名词为可数名词,而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。名词的复数构成通常是在其后加—s；但以-s,-x,-ch,-sh和大部分以o结尾的名词后加-es；以"辅音字母+y"结尾的名词把"y"变成"i",再加-es。有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,有其特殊形式。有些名词在不同的情况下,属不同的名词词类,因此有时为可数,有时则为不可数：名词的格可分为主格<作主语>,宾格<作宾语>和所有格<表示所有关系>。代词可分为人称代词,物主代词,反身代词,相互代词,不定代词,指示代词,关系代词,连接代词和疑问代词等九类。名词的用法可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词,否则要用其复数形式,例如：Ifapersondisobeystheorder,hewillbepunishedseverely．Theteacherfirstlydividedhisstudentsintofourgroups．Thereferencebookcanbeusedtoanswerquestions,tosolveproblemsortoobtaininformationonaparticulartopic．Thesecoursesareespeciallydesignedforseniorstudents．有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,如：child-children,foot-feet。goose-geese,mouse-mice,man-men,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,woman-women等。例如：Everyfallgeesef1yoverthehouse．Thedentisttoldhimthatseveralteethofhisneedtobefilled．Mrs.Smithhasthreechildren,andTonnyistheyoungestone．Ithinkwe'vegotmiceinthekitchen．有些名词的单复数形式是一样的,如：Chinese,Japanese,Burmese<缅甸>,Spanish<西班牙>,Lebanese<黎巴嫩>,Portuguese<葡萄牙>,Swiss<瑞士>．sheep,deer,swine<猪>,fish,carp<鲤鱼>,salmon<鲑>,means,series,species,aircraft,spacecraft等。例如：Thebestfisharenearthebottom．WhentheygottotheNewWorld,SpanishconstructedtheirhouseswithMoorisharchitecturalfeatures．Isawawhitesheeprunningdowntheroad．Judgingbyhislanguage,hemustbeaJapanese．在表示一类事物时,介词of后的名词要用复数形式。例如：Beethovenisofthegreatestmusiciansintheworld．TheAnimalArtFestivalisbeingheldatShanghaizoo,whichisoneofthemostwelcomefestivalsinthecity.Asoneofthecountriesthatbearresponsibilityfortheincident,GermanChancellorSchroederholdsthattheorganizationshouldapologizetoChinesegovernmentunconditionally.SheisoneofthethreemartyrswhowerekilledinNATO'sbombingontheChineseEmbassyinYugoslavia.大多数集体名词可作单数,也可作复数,如：army,audience,class,committee,crew<全体船员,乘务员>,crowd,faculty,family,governmentgrouporchestra,public,team,union等。但有些虽然是单数形式,却用作复数,如：cattle〔牡畜〕mankind<人类>,militia<民兵>,people,police,poultry<家畜>,staff<全体职员>等。例如：ThepresidentsaidtheChineseGowrnmentispayingcloseattentiontodevelopmentsinthismatter,andcontinuestoreservetherighttotakefutureaction.Thecattle,weregrazingonthemeadownearthefarm.Theaudiencewereamusedbyhishumorousstories.Myfamilyisfarawayfromtheschool.有些名词只有复数形式,而且也只用作复数,如：clothes,glasses,spectacles,pants,arms<武器>,belongings<所有物>,customs<海关>,goods<货物>,suburbs<郊区>,papers<文件>等；而有些名词形式为复数,却用作单数,如：electronics<电子学>,mathematics<数学>,optics<光学>,politics,statistics<统计学>等。例如：Theshortshewearsaremadeofleather.Linguisticsisadifficultsubjecttostudy.Heusedtostudyelectronicswhichisn’thisfavoritesuject．Ilovetoliveinthesuburbsthatareconclusive．有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现,表示总体。但如果表示若干、多次或几种时,则要用其复数。这类词有：hair,fruit,pollution,rain,difficulty,success,wind,failure,favour等。例如：ThebarberhadbeencuttinghumanhairfortwoyearsbeforehecametoLosAngeles．Motherboughtoranges,bananasandotherfruits.Thesecavescollapseeasilyinheavyrains,andgreatwinds．He’shavingfinancialdifficulties．有些名词一般只有单数形式,它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词,像：advice,baggage,bread,corn,clothing,equipment,education,fun,furniture,food,fruit,garbage,grass,happiness,homework,housework,humanity,information,knowledge,landscape,1aughter,machinery,mankind,merchandise,money,music,nonsense,nature,population,progress,scenery,smoke,sweat,strength,traffic,thunder,ink,jewellery,damage,mail,work,soap,sugar,gold,chalk,cloth,anger,applause,cake,chocolate,poverty等。例如：Imustseektheadviceofaspecialistinthematterofthetransferofpropertyrights．Headacheisthemostcommondiseaseofhuman.Ireallygetalotoffunfromreadinginleisuretime.ThepopulationofShanghaiisverybig.有些名词单复数的含义不同,使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括：communication<通讯>—communications<通讯系统,通讯工具>,cloth<布>--clothes<衣服>,content<内容>--contents<目录>,convenience<便利>--conveniences<便利设备>,humanity<人类>--humanities<人文科学>,necessity<需要>-necessities<必需品>,wood<木材>-woods<树林>,pain<疼痛>—pains<辛劳>,ruin<毁灭>-ruins<废墟,遗迹>,sand<沙子>--sands<沙滩>,work<工作>--works<工厂,著作>等。例如："Hometown"isoneofLuXun’smostfamousworks．Theinsurancecompanypaid$98,700indamagesfortheaccident．Mychildenjoysplayingonthesands．Nopains,nogains．有些名词只有复数形式。如：fundamentals<基本原则>,goods<货物>,means<方法>,shorts<短裤>,sweets<欢乐>,valuables<贵重物品>等。ThefundamentalsaremadetoguaranteethesocialstabilityDon’ttakeanyvaluablesthereforthesakeofsafety.Thegoodswerepurchasedfromhimaren’texpensive.Ithinkourproblemcanbesolvedbymeansofnegotiation.名词做定语时,不能用作复数。例如：Pleasecheckyourexaminationpapercarefullyafterfinishing。TheChina'sCentralTelevisionStationsuppliesweatherreporteveryday,You'dbetterinformmyfamilymembersbeforeleavingforBeijing．TheUnitedStatesandGermanyaretwomemberstatesofNATO.复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如：looker<s>--on,runner<s>-up,son<s>-in-law,editor<s>-in-chief,passer<s>-by,grand-child<ren>,armyman<armymen>,room-number<s>,shoelace<s>,dinnerplate<s>,bloodtype<s>等。如果没有主体名词,就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如：go-between<s>,drawback<s>等。注意以man,woman构成的复合名词,全部变成复数。如：man-servant—men-servants,woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如：Wouldyoubringmesomedinnerplates?Wehadawonderfultalkwithsomewomen-soldiers．Don’tregardyourselvesaspassers-byundersuchcircumstances．Weareofdifferentbloodtypes．名词的所有格一般在词尾加’s,已有复数词尾-s的,只加’。例如：Wemustworkhardtofulfilthecountry’splans．Theschooliswithinastone’sthrow．Nearbyareherrelatives’houses．CouldyoutellmetheSmiths’saddres?名词所有格有时还可以和of构成短语,有以下两种情况：1>它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词,如：a,two,several,some,any,no,few等。2>它所修饰的词前面有+个指示代词,使句子表示某种情绪。例如：SeveralstudentsofLaoYang’sactedintheplay．WesawaplayGuoMoro's.Atbirth,theheadofababyisextremelylargeinrelationtotherestofthebody。IhavesomerecordsofNaYing's.2．代词的用法1>人称代词有主格人称代词,在句中充当主语：I,you,he,she,it,we,you,they和宾格人称代词,在句中充当宾语：me,you,him,her,it,us,you；them。例如：Wehaven'tseeneachotherforalongtimesincehewentabroad．Letyouandmehaveanappointmentforthenextweekend.Haveyougotanyideaaboutthisissue?Telluswhateveryou'veheard.2>物主代词可在句中作定语,有指人的：my,our,your,his,her和their；有指物的:it,his或her<指国家或轮船>。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语,与of连用可作定语：yours,ours,theirs,mine,her,his,its。例如：Tonnyisanoldfriendofmine．Mydormitoryisnexttoyours,andMary'sisonthethirdfloor．Titanicsankwithherseveralthousandpassengers．Nexttimeit'sonmytreat．3>反身代词亦称自身代词,可作宾语、表语,作主语或宾语的同位语,还与某些动词连用,与介词连用构成成语。有：myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves。例如：Thesechildrenaretooyoungtotakecareofthemselves．Don'tworry,hewillbehimselfagainsoon．AlthoughUncleGeorgeisabad-temperedman,Ithinkheisakindmaninhimself．Youshouldberesponsibleforyourself．4>相互代词表示相互关系,有：eachother<两者之间>和oneanother<多者之间>。例如：ImetMissScottthismorning,andwegreetedeachother．Weshouldlearnfromoneanotherandmakeprogresstogether,5>指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语,有：this,that,these,those。Such也是指示代词,可作定语、主语和表语,修饰可数名词时要与a连用。例如：NowadaysTVprogramsaremuchmorecolorfulthanthoseOfthepast．Themoneyspentonentertainment,accordingtosomeauthorities,hasexceededthatspentonpublichealth．Iwanttoknowthis：areyoutalkingabouttheaccidentIencounteredyesterday?Hisfutureiscloselyboundwiththatofthecompany。Youshouldn'ttrustonsuchapersonwhoneverkeepshispromise．6>疑问代词有who,whom,whose,whatwhich。who可作主语和表语；whom作宾语,whose,what,which可作主语、表语、宾语和定语,其中作主语时,要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数,如果不清楚,则动词一般用单数。Whowillseetothismatter?Whomhaveyouchosentoberesponsibleforthework?Itishardtodecidewhoseisbetter.What’sonyourschedule?Whichuniversitydidheenteratlast?

7>关系代词有who,whom,whose,that,which。which代表事物,that代表人或物；在非限制性定语从句中,不能用that,而用who<m>代表人,用which代表物,或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有a11,something,nothing,anything,much等的句子中不能用which,而用that。例如：Ourfootballteamwasdefeatedagain,whichshowsourplayersneedmuchmoreeffort．Thefactorynowhasover1,000workers,halfofwhomarewomen．Hepromisedtotellusallthatheknew．Whoseturntomakepresentationisbcyondme.8>连接代词有：what,who,whonl,whose,which,用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表浯从句。Whoever,whomever,whichever,whatever为复合代词。例如：Ididn'tknowwhattodoatthatverymoment．ThegovernmentsellpublichousestowhoeverprovidesenoughamountOfmoney．WhomeverIworryaboutisnoneofyourbusiness．Takewhicheveryoulike,please．第二节形容词与副词形容词和副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级,它们的构成方法基本上一样,都与音节多少有关,有些形容词和副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。1．形容词与副词的用法形容词中有词形相近的,也有词义相近的,应注意区别。如：1>behind<在后的>hind<后部的>,considerate<周到的,体贴的>considerable<应考虑的>,eminent<闻名的>--imminent<紧迫的>,gracious<亲切的>graceful<优雅的>,like<有生命的>alive<活的>,industrious<勤劳的>--industrial<工业的>,like<同样的>alike<同样的,仅作表语>,opposite<相对的>opposing<反对的>,perspective<透视的>respective<各自的>,sensitive<伤感的>sensible<明显的>,etc,。例如：WedidenjoyyourstayinginBeijing,andMrs.Yanisreallyconsiderate．ProfessorLihasmanyworld-famousinventions,andheisrespectabletous．Asanyoneknowsthatweuseourfrontteethforbitingandourhindteethforchewing．It’saconsiderablesuccessforhim．2>elemental<初步的>--fundamental<基本的>,eligible<合格的>--capable<能干的>,flexible<灵活的>--changeable<可改变的>,initial<最初的>--preliminary<初步的,预备的>,slack<松弛的>--lazy<懒惰的>,valueless<无价值的>--priceless<无价的>,vivid<生动的>一living<活的>,etc．。例如：Henry’sspeechwassovividthathisaudienceapplaudedagainandagain,Itiseasiertoadapttonewsituationsifonehasaflexibleattitude．Wehavefinishedthepreliminaryexam．Yoursuggestionispriceless,and1willconsidercarefully．3>有些词尾为-ly的并非副词,而是形容词,如：lovdy,likdy,deadly,earthly<现世的>,leisurdy<空闲的>,weekly,yearly,manly<丈夫气概的>,brotherly,friendly等。例如：WhatalovelygirlJennyis．Sheisalwaysreadytohelpothers．ChinaDailyisofcourseadailynewspaperbutnotaweeklyone．Heisaveryfriendlyyoungman．Ashedidn'thaveanyexperience,hewaslikelytohaveproblems．以下情况形容词常用于后置：1>形容词短语,即形容词+副词,介词短语或不定式。2>一些表语性形容词要后置,如：present,available,involved,concerned,etc,。3>形容词修饰不定代词something,anything,everything时要后置。例如：Therewassomethingniceaboutmyfeelingthatsheknewa11．Forthisreason,aswellastheadditionalcostinvolved,flowforcecompensationisgenerallynotdesirable．Icameacrossanotherquestionhardtoanswerthen．Iwonderediftherewasaroomavailable．副词的位置为：修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面；放在系动词和助动词之后,行为动词和分词之前。例如：Ihadonlyfive-dollarbillwithmewhenlboardedthetownwardtrain．Theoldlawwereinstitutedtoprotectthelongneglectedrightsofchildren.Icanhardlybelievethatheisthemurderer．Althoughhehasadvantages,itisstilltooearlytosaythatheissuretowin．2．比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为：单音节词一般在词尾加-er和-est。如果以-e结尾,仅加-r和-st；如末尾仅有一个辅音字母,须双写词尾冉加-er和-est；如果以y结尾的,把y变i,加-er,-est；多音节单词和双音节词<其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词,如：known,worn,wounded,shocking,striking,interesting,ect,则在其前加more和most；有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的,如：good<well>-better-best,bad<ill>-worse-worst,many<much>-more-most,little-less-least,far-farther<further>-farthest<furthest>。有些形容词没有比较级形式,如：absolute,chief,entire,eternal,excellent,fatal,final,foremost,inevitable,infinite,main,naked,perfect,possible,primary,right,sufficient,supreme,universal,utter,vital,whole,wooden,etc,例如：Maryisthebeststudentintheclass．Furthernegotiationwillbeconductednextmonth．Thefoodwehaveissufficient.Needlesstosay,heisstrongerthanhisopponent．一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样,单音节的以在词尾加-er和-est构成,多音节的以加more和most的方法构成；有些比较特殊,如：well—better-best,badly-worse-worst,much-more-most,little-less-least。以-ly结尾的副词,在其前面加more,most,例如：Tonnyrunsmostquicklythananyotherstudentsintheclass．Whichdoyoulikebest,ThornBirds,GoneWiththeWindOrGreatExpectation?Ipreferlesssugarinthemilk．Shegetsmoreincomeeverymonththanherhusband．形容词和副词的原级比较由"as+形容词或副词<或后跟名词或短语>+as"构成,"as…as’’前可加not,just,almost,nearly,quite,twice,severaltimes等词修饰。否定式中not后面的as可改为so。例如：Runningforfifteenminuteswillburnasmanycaloriesaswalkingforthirtyminutes．HenanprovinceisseveraltimesaslargeasShanghai．Jimmyhasasnervousawayspeakingashisfather．Gettingridofabadhabitisn'tsosimpleastakingitup．形容词和副词的比较级形式为："形容词<副词>比较级+than+…",应注意than前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟even,much,still等副词修饰比较级,表示强调。例如：Motherworriedmuchmoreaboutmyyoungerbrotherthanshedidaboutme．SoundtravelsfasterthroughwaterthanthroughIair．TheeconomicdevelopmentinSouthChinaisfasterthanthatinNorthChina．MybooksaremuchmorethanLiPing's．形容词和副词的最高级的形式分别为："the+形容词最高级十名词+X围表达"和"副词最高级+名词+X围表达",副词的比较级和最高级不需要加the。例如：Ourforeignexchangereservedidn'tdeclinedespitetheworstfloodinsixtyyears．Ifinisbedtheworkmoresuccessfullythanhehadexpected．应注意以下表达式的含义：thesame…as<和……一样>,nolessthan<不少于>,notlessthan<只有>,hadbetter<最好>,lessthan<不到>,moreorless<或多或少>,otherthan<除了>,ratherthan<而不是>,themore…themore/less<越……就越……>例如：Iamsurethattheamountofmoneyusedinrepayingaloanwouldhavethesamevalueastheamountofmoneyborrowed．Youhadbetterfinisllyourhomeworktodayfortheteacherwillcollectittomorrow．Wehavereceivedtendozenofpersonalcomputerswhicharelessthantheamountweordered．Thevisltorstotheexhibitionwerenotlessthanthreehundred,whichdisappointedthemverymuch．第三节从句从句分为定语从句,状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种,由关系代词或关系副词引导,修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步、原因、条件与行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句与therebe句型。1．定语从句限定性定语从句中that可代表人和事,而which只代表事；二者在从句中作主语或宾语。that作宾语时常可省略,which则不能,而且其后的"不与物动词+介词’’中的介词不能省略。which作宾语时,先行词与which之间的介词不能省。例如：Thefirstdollthatcouldsay"mama"wasinventedin1830．Thesecondhalfofhisvoyagewasbyfarthemoredangerouspart,duringwhichhesailedroundtheCapeHorn．代表a11,anything,something,nothing,much等词时,用that而不用which,that作宾语可省略。例如：Icareanythingthathassomethingtodowithit．You'dbetterdosomethinghepreferstodotopleasehim．Thatisthelasttimewemeteachother．Icameacrossthewomanyoutoldmeaboutyesterday．who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人,分别作从句的主语和宾语。where是关系副词,用于表示地点的定语从句,而when用来表示时间。whose是关系代词,修饰名词作定语。例如:HenryFordisthepersonwhoismostresponsiblefordevelopingtheideaofmassproduction．Thekneeisthejointwherethethighbonemeetsthelargeboneofthelowerleg．Thenextmorning,whenshecamedowntobreakfast,Marywasbeamingwiththepleasureofanew,greatdiscovery．Thevisitingprofessorisafamousscientistwhosesonstudiesinmydepartment．在下列情况,限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略：1>当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语；或它们在从句中作介词的宾语,而该介词又在句末时；2>当先行词是that,all,only,everything,something,nothing等代词时,或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时；3>当先行词前有only,any,all,first,no,last等修饰时,或先行词就是time,moment,way<anyway>,direction,distance等名词时,关系代词即可省略。例如：Thedelegationwehadbeenwaitingforfinallyarrived．Imetthewomanyoutoldmeabout．Shegavemeallshecouldafford．WithTVwecanseethingshappenalmostattheexactmomenttheyarehappening．非限定性定语从句,其作用为：对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明,它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中,which可代表前面的整个句子；代表人时只能用who,whom,而不能用that；as也可用作关系代词。例如:Thetelephone,asweknow,wastheinventionofAlexanderGrahamBell．TheLittleWhiteHouseinWarmSpringswastheGeorgiahomePresidentFranklinD．Roosevelt,whodiedthereonApril12,1945．Livinginadamphouseforalongtimeisharmfultoone’shealth,whichisknowntoeveryone．2．状语从句状语从句可分为：时间状语从句<主要由when,whenever,after,before,a5,slnce,once,assoonas,Until,while等连词引导>,结果状语从句<由so…that和such…that连接>,让步状语从句<由though,although,nomatter,evenif,however,whatever等词引导>,原因状语从句<由as,because,since和for引导>,条件状语从句<由if,whether,aslongas,providedthat等词引导>,地点状语从句<由where引导>,行为方式状语从句<由as引导>。有时条件状语从句中,主句不可以用将来时,而用一般时代替。例如：ThesmallgreenishflowersoftheelmtreeappearintheSpring,longbeforetheleavesgrow.QiongYao'snovelsusedtobesopopularthatherbooksappearedonbest-sellerlists.Gasballoonislesssafethanhotballoonbecauseitmaycatchfire.Uniformacceleration<同样的加速>occursiftherateofchangeremainsthesameoversuccessiveequalintervalsoftime．ThousandsofChinesecollegestudentswenttotheUSConsulateShanghai,wheretheyprotestedNATO'sbombingatChina'sEmbassyinYugoslavia.状语从句中的"主语+be"可以省略,前提是：从句主语和主句主语一致,且从句谓语"be"省略后的结构为"连词+现在分词／过去分词介词短语／形容词／名词短语"。>例如：Whenwellfitted,glassescancorrectmostsightdefectsinhealthyeyes．Ifnecessary,Iwouldliketoseeyouinyouroffice.Althoughseriouslywounded,henevercomplained．3．名词从句名词从句包括主语从句、宾语从句,其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。主语从句主语从句常出现在itis+名词、形容词、分词+主语从句"的形式中。例如：ItisreportedthatTaiwanesepopsingerMengTingweiwillholdasoloconcertinShanghaisomedaythismonth．Itmustbepointedoutthatyouhavefailedtomeetthedeadline．ItusuallyhappenedthatIwaslatebecauseoftrafficjams.主语从句还可用when,where,how,why,whether等连接副词,和who,whom,whose,what,which,whoever,whatever,whichever等连接代词来引起。例如：Howtoarrangethemeetingisnotyourtask．Whosecandidatewillwintheelectionisthequestionbothpoliticalpartiesareasking．WhenIleaveismyowndecision.Whoeverwillgotothepartywon'tchangemymindofstayingathome．2>宾语从句宾语从句可由that,疑问代词或副词how,why和where等引出。例如：Topostponetheconferenceuntilnextmonthindicatedthattheywereunprepared．Nearlya11thestaffagreedwithwhatIsaid．Everyoneworriedaboutherbecausenoonewasawareofwhereshehadgone．Couldyouoffermoredetailsexceptthatithappenedatnight?由what,whether,how引导的宾语从句可用在介词后,而由that引导的从句只跟but,besides,except,in,save之后。例如:Icanhardlybelieveinwhattheyhavedone.Hedoesn’tknowmyphonenumberexceptthatthecitycodeis021.一些表语性的形容词,如：alarmed,amazed,annoyed,astonished,certain,confident,disappointed,glad,pleased,proud,sad,shocked,sure,surprised,worried,ect.做表语时,后面可跟由that,how等引导的宾语从句。例如：Iwasamazedhowhecouldpasstheexamwithoutattendingthelectures．HeisconfidentthathewillpasstheBand6examination．Shewassurprisedhowsimplehisproblemis．Weareallpleasedthathewillbeabletopassthefinalexamination.3>表语从句表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用；若表语从句用that引起,that起连接作用,不能省略。b表语从句也可用连接词how,when,where,why,what引起。由because引起的表语从句通常只用在"this／that／itisbecause"结构中。例如：Alogarithm<对数>iswhatisknowninalgebraexponent<代数的指数>．OnethingIadmiremostaboutthemisthattheyarehospitable．Sheworkstoohard；Thatiswhysheisexhausted．Imustpointoutthatwhereyouintendtobuildasuper-marketiswheretheelderlydoexerciseeveryday．4>同位语从句同位语从句是由两个或两个以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构,其中前项与后项所指相同,句法功能相同。同位语从句由that引导,也可由whether,how,why,where,when等来引导。例如：Sheignoredtheteacher'sinstructionthatshemuststudyhard．ThequestionwhetherornotIshouldhelphiminsuchacasetroubledmegreatly．第四节动词不定式1．不定式的基本形式与结构动词不定式指通常由to加上动词原形<如towrite>所构成的一种非限定性动词形式,但在有些情况下to可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体<如上tobewriting,tohavewritten>,也有被动态<如tobewritten>,所有的主动词,不论是与物动词还是不与物动词,也不论是动作动词还是状态动词,都有不定式形式。助动词除be和have外,没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。2．不定式的用法1>不定式结构作主语TegetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwanmadehimextremelyhappysincetheyseparatedmorethan40yearsago．Tofinishthattaskinsuchashorttimeisreallyachallenge．在上述情况下,如果不定式较长,显得头重脚轻,则可由代词让作形式主语<形式主语it不可由that或this等其他代词代替>,而将不定式放到后面。如：ItmadehimextremelyhappytogetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwansincetheyseparatedmorethan40yearsago．Johnadmittedthatitisalwaysdifficultforhimtobeontime．不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的,即不定式的逻辑主语,通常可以通过forsb.todosth.结构表达：Itisquiteimportantforustoreadgoodbooksduringageneralreview．Itisnotdifficultfotthosetalentedstudentstopasstheexam.在某些形容词<如careless,clever,considerate,foolish,good,impolite,kind,naughty,nice,silly,stupid等>作表语时,不定式后可以加of来引导出其逻辑主语：Itisverykindofyoutotellmethetruth．Itisstupidofhimtodosuchasillything．2>不定式作宾语不定式作宾语有两种：一种是与物动词后直接跟带to的不定式,另一种是"与物动词+疑问词+带to的不定式。与物动词+带to的不定式结构:只能跟动词不定式的动词,常见的有:afford,agree,aim,appear,ask,believe,care,claim,decidedemand,desire,determine,expect,fail,happen,hesitate,hope,intend,learn,long,manage,offer,pretend,promise,prepare,refuse,seek,swear,undertake,want,wish等。Hemanagedtosolvethecomplicatedproblem.Thestrangerofferedtoshowmetheway.Mr.SmithundertooktobuildanewplantinSouthAfrica.动词+疑问代<副>词+不定式：这类动词常见的有advise,decide,findout,forget,inquire,know,learn,see,regard,remember,teach,tell,understand,wonder等。常见的疑问代<副>词有:what,when,where,which,how,whether等。Hedoesnotknowwhentostart.Youcandecidewhethertocontinueortostop.Iwillshowyouhowtodealwithit.有时,不定式可由it代替,而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达：动词<如find,think,consider,feel等>+it+形容词+不定式。Sheconsidersitnecessarytomakefriendswithhim.Wefinditdifficulttofinishallthehomeworkbefore9o’clock.3>不定式做表语一种情况为主语是不定式<表示条件>；表语也是不定式<表示结果>：Toseeistobelieve.Toworkmeanstoearnaliving．另一种情况为主语是以aim,duty,hope,idea,job,plan,problem,purpose,thing,wish等名词为中心的短语,或以what引导的名词性从句,不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用：Hisaimistostudyabroadinthenearfuture．Themostimportantthingistonegotiatewiththemabouttheprice．WhatIwanttosayistoforgetalltheunhappyexperience．4>不定式作定语不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型：第一种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如：Therewasreallynothingtofear．Hegavemeaninterestingbooktoread．如果不定式是不与物动词,后面就得加相应的介词。例如：Maryneedsafriendtoplaywith．Thatgirlhasnothingtoworryabout．Theyhaveastrictteachertolistento．Althoughthefilmhadbeenonfortenminutes,Istillwasnotabletofindachairtositon．第二种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语；例如：Haveyougotakeytounlockthedoor?Theactiontobetakeniscorrect．Thereisnothingtobegainedbypretending．第三种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意义的名词：ability,attempt,effort,impulse,inclination,wish等。例如：Herdaughterwillmakeanevenbiggerefforttopleaseher．Ihavenowishtoquarrelwithyou．NeitherofthemhadanyinclinationtodobusinesswithMary.5>不定式作状语不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原因状语：Theyarequitesurprisedtoseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea．Theyarequitesurprisedbecausetheyseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea．Hewasluckytoarrivebeforedark．Hewasluckybecausehearrivedbeforedark．作目的状语：Sheraisedhervoicetobehearedbetter．Sheraisedhervoicesothatshecouldheardbetter．WewentviaHeidelbergtomissthetrafficjam．WewentviaHeidelbergsothatwecouldmissthetrafficjam．作结果状语：TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullyastodefeattheBrazilians．TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullythattheyevendefeatedtheBrazilians．Hegottothestationonlytobetoldthetrainhadgone．Hegottothestationandwastoldthatthetrainhadgone．不带to的不定式的使用动词不定式通常带to,但在有些搭配中不带to,在另一些搭配中可带to可不带to。归纳起来,以下情况下使用不带to不定式：1>在can／could,/may／might,will／would,shall／should,must,need,dare等情态动词之后,动词不定式不带to。2>在表示感觉意义的动词,如see,feel,watch,notice,smell,hear,observe等后,或是表示"致使"意义的动词,如have,let,make等后,动词不定式不带to。例如：Ioftenheardhimsaythathewouldstudyhard．Imusthavehimseehisownmistakes．但是,当这类结构转换为被动语态时,后面的不带to不定式一般转换为带to不定式。例如：Hewasoftenheardtosaythathewouldstudyhard．Afterhehadfinishedspeaking,hewasmadetoanswerinnumerablequestions．3>在动词help之后可用不带to的不定式,也可用带to的不定式。例如：Helptheoldlady<to>carrytheheavybox.4>在hadbetter,wouldrather,may／mightaswell,ratherthan,cannotbut等搭配之后,动词不定式也不带to。例如：Unlessyoufeeltoilltogoout,Iwouldrathernotstayathometonight．Shecouldnotbutcriticizehisfoolishbehaviour.5>在makedo,makebelieve,letdrop,1etfall,1etfly,letslip,letdrive,letgooff,hearsay,heartell,leavegoof等固定搭配中,用不带to的动词不定式。例如：Theyletgooftherope．他们松开了绳子。Johnletflyatorrentofabuseatme．约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。I'veheardtellofhim．我听说过他。Someofthefacultywereletgoforlackofthestudents．由于生源不足,一些教职员工被解雇了。6>在介词but,except之后,如果其前有动词do的某种形式,其后不定式一般不带to,反之则必须带to,表示"不得不,只能"。例如：Hewilldoanythingexceptworkonthefarm．Therewasnothingleftfortheenemytodobutsurrender．Thespywasbothhungryandcold；therewasnothingleftforhimbuttogivein．Ihadnochoicebuttowaittillitstoppedraining．下面一些短语是固定搭配,不带to：cannothelpbut,cannotchoosebut,cannotbut,donothingbut,havenothingtodobut。例如：Icannotbutadmirehiscourage.如果上述句中有do,to省略：IdidnothingbutwatchTVlastnight．如果是下面一个固定搭配,就带to：Ihavenochoicebuttogiveupmyidea.7>紧跟在why或whynot之后的动词不定式总是不带to。但是,紧跟在who,what,which,whether等连接词后的不定式带to。例如：Whystandupifyoucansitdown?Whynotaskyourteacherwhenyoudon'tunderstandthemeaning?Youneedn'tdecideyetwhethertostudyartsorscience．4．不定式的完成式和进行式1>构成完成式：to+havedone进行式：to+bedoing2>用法完成式：如果不定式所表示的动作<状态>发生在主要谓语动作之前,那么不定式就要用其完成式。进行式：如果主要谓语动作<情况>发生时,不定式所表示的动作正在发生,那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如：Shefeelsrelaxedtohavefinishedwritingherthesisbeforethedeadline．TheVikingsarebelievedtohavediscoveredAmerica．Whenyoucalledmelastnight,Ihappenedtobeworkingonthecomputer．5．不定式的被动形式当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时,不定式要用被动形式,包括它的一般式和完成式。例如：Fortwelveyears,SpanishcensorshipdidnotallowLorca'snametobementionedandhisworktobepublished．Thesnowwassupposedtohavebeenblownoffthemountain．6．不定式的否定形式否定形式是在不定式的标志to前加not。例如：Idecidednottoaskhimagain．Pleaseremembernottoleavethelightsonwhenyouareout．第五节动名词1．动名词的形式:动名词是由动词原形+ing构成<如writing>,有完成时态和被动语态<如havingwritten,beingwritten>。2．动名词的用法动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。1>动名词作主语Goingtothecollegeisthelittleboy'sdream．Keepingstudyinghardwillmakeyoupasstheexam．2>动名词作宾语有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语,不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有：admit,acknowledge,anticipate,appreciate,avoid,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,dislike,ensure,enjoy,escape,excuse,evade,facilitate,fancy,favour,finish,forbid,imagine,include,keep,mind,miss,postpone,practise,resent,resist,risk,suggest,quit,worth等。例如：Johnwasconsideringbuyinganewcar.Ihopeyoudidn’tcontemplatecomingwithusonthistrip．Thewitnessdeniedhavingseentheaccusedman．Iwouldappreciateyourkeepingitasecret．3>某些短语后面只能接动名词,不能接不定式。此类短语常见的有：be<get>usedto,beaccustomedto,bededicatedto,bedevotedto,bebusy,becommittedto,besujectto,cannothelp,cannotresist,cannotstand,confessto,feellike,giveup,havetrouble<in>,havedifficulty<in>,haveagood／hardtime<in>,havefun<in>,haveanobjectionto,itisnogood／use,keepon,insiston,lookforwardto,objectto,payattentionto,putoff,resortto,succeedin等。例如：Icannotstandgettingupearlyinthemorning．Ihavenodifficulty<in>reachingthetopofthemountain.Thereisnousestayingon．Icannotresist<his>bargaining．Althoughpunctualhimself,theprofessorwasquiteusedtostudents’beinglateforhislecture.4>动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式,要根据句子的意思而定。例如:Carlosjustmissedbeingcaught．Thatpersonworedarkglassestoavoidbeingrecognized．Iobjecttobeingtreatedlikeachild．3．另一类动词后面可以带动名词做宾语,也可以带不定式作宾语。这类动词又可以分为两种：1>带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词a>在begin,cannotbear,cease,con