人类的语言学及人力资源流程手册-HR工具书

标准日语课后练习翻译及答案1-18课1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征Designfeatures------referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity/productivity,displacement,cluturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.Designfeatures-----arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)

TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.Whatisarbitrariness?任意性a.arbitrariness【'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】----arbitrariness(任意性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)

ItwasdiscussedbySaussurefirst.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.E.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)arbitrarybetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a.By“arbitrary”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。Agogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforagig.Languagethereforeislargelyarbitrary.b.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang””crash””roar””rumble””cakle”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词c.somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitaryeither.“type”and”write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.arbitraryandonometopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。Eg.Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。Arbitraryatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Accordingtosystematic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionlists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----itreferstothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。Aribrtaryandconvention任意性和约定性Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。Theothersideofcoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.Arbitrainessoflangaugemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Otherpeople,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationorcorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnectionbetweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andforthem,thesetsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.b.duality【djuː'ælətɪ】(二重性):---onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchasunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningfulthelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.Dog:woof(butnot“w-oo-f”)Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations(e.g.words)whicharedistinctinmeaning.Theprincipleofeconomy经济原则Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagesofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.).Atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHUZHUANGLIN,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels,oneofsoundandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticwords/units,andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(Notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanmialcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。lic.Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.creativity(创造性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,bycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.(指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。e.g.anexperimentofbeecommunication:Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,willfailtodosoifthelocationisreally‘new’.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswasplacedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakentothetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthefreefood.Theyflowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn’tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethatbeecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelatedtohorizontadistance.Thebeecannotcreatea‘new’messageindicatingverticaldistance.Noonehasneversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusproductivityisalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。d.displacement(移位性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)Beecommunication:Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothehive,itcanperformacomplexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefornearbyandtail-waggingdance,withvariabletempo,forfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethisnewlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinanextremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.Displacement,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealorunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeak,thatmeanslanguagehasthefeatureofdisplacement.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butit’sanunspeakabletinysharee.Culturaltransmission----genetictransmissionYouacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparentalgenes.Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.（人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。f.interchangeability互换性interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereisdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog/dogsis/are“speaking”andwhichlistening.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?Arbitrariness----asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof.Duality----afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication.Creativity----animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.Displacement----noanimalcantalkaboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation.Culturaltransmission-----detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“Americansignlanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidnotmakethelinguistscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notenenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.1.5functionsoflanguage语言的功能Jakobsondefinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:Referentialfunction-----toconveymessageandinformation所指功能：传达信息Poeticfunction-----toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake诗学功能：完全就语言而语言Emotivefunction----toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情Cognitivefunction----topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人Phaticfunction----toestablishcommunionwithothers交感功能：与他人建议交流Metalingualfunction-----toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：Ideationalfunction----constructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系Interpersonalfunction-----enactssocialrelationships人际功能：反映了社会关系textualfunctions----createsrelevancetocontext.语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,thatis,instrumental,regulatory,representational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.prescriptive描写式”和“规定式”prescriptive(规定式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.(规定事情应该是怎样的.)

descriptive(描写式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.(描述事情是怎样的.)Descriptivevs.prescriptive“描写式”和“规定式”Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Whatmakestraditionalgrammardifferentfrommodenlinguistics?ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways:Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic“共时”和“历时synchronic(共时的):akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法书属于此类型.)

.diachronic(历时的):studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g(1)anessayentitled“OnthesueofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalernation.(2)astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakepeare’stimeandwouldbeasynchronicstudy,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.1.9.3langue&parole“语言”和“言语”langue(语言):thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.(说话者的语言能力.)

parole(言语):theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.)ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse,ortheactualoractualizedlanguage.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.(1)Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。(2)Languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccruingevent.(3)Languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusntosuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportant,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.9.4Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用competence(语言能力):alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)

performance(语言应用):theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“compentence”istheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterance,inlinguisticcommunication.语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspearker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompentence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolediffertoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.de.Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticspointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissurespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。ConsonantsSpeechsoundsmaybeclassifiedintotwomajortypesintermsoftheirarticulatorycharacteristics.ThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledCONSONANTS.Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledVOWELS.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords封闭类词和开放类词Thedistinctionofgrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsleadstodistinctionof“colsed-class”wordsand“open-class”words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。Closed-classword(封闭词类):------awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc..(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)open-classword(开放类词):-------awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)

Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?

InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.SemantictriangleProposedbyOgden&Richardsintheir“TheMeaningofMeaning”.Theysawtherelationshipbetweenthewordandthethingitreferstoisnotdirect.It’smediatedbyconcept.thoughtorreferencesymbolreferentInthisdiagram,thesymbolorformreferstolinguisticelements(words,phrases),thereferentreferstothethingsintherealworld,andthoughtorreferencerefersto“concept”.e.g.Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofalanguage,andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.语义三角形最大的问题在于词语与所指事物没有必然的联系。同一个事物可能或者可以用不同的词来表示。(1)Conceptualmeaning------Logical,cognitive,ordenotationcontent逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Associativemeaning:联想意义(2)Connotativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义(3)Socialmeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义(4)Affectivemeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义(5)Reflectedmeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroghtassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.反射意义：通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义(6)Collocativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.搭配意义：通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。(7)Thematicmeaning----whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.主题意义：通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义5.Leechsaysthatthefirsttypeofmeaning-----conceptualmeaning----makesupthecentralpart.Itis“denotative”inthatitisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orreferto.Inthissense,conceptualmeaingoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.利奇指出，意义的第一种类型----概念意义----构成了意义的中心部分。这种意义是“外延“的，因为它关注词和他所指事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。6．Philosophersuseconnotation,oppositetodenotation,tomeanthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Forexample,thedenotationofhumanisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary,anditsconnotationis“biped”,“featherless”,“rational”,etc.哲学家们用内涵和外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。例如，人的外延是任何人，如约翰和玛丽；内涵是“两足动物”“无羽毛的”“有理性的”等等。7.“connotative”-----referstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive,meaning.内涵指的是一些附加的，尤其是感情的意义。denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphradethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.2.whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?.reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.sense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.Sense------senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,whichisacollectionofsemanticmeanings,abstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdectionarycompilersareinterestedin.意义是词汇意义的一个侧面，它是指词汇内在的抽象，独立于语境之外的意义，也是词典字意。Reference----referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysical,itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality,betweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指意义是词汇意义的另一个侧面，它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。所指也叫“参照”“或“指称”，是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现象的关系，它表现于一定的上下文之中。(1)linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Forexample:Iwasoncebittenbyadog./Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.有着同样意义的词，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。(2)linguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Forexample:“morningstar”and“eveningstar.”有时所指相同，但意义却不同。４．Sense&referencesenseandreferencearethetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense-----theinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;It’sabstractandde-contextualized.It’stheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Reference-----What