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CHAMBERSGLOBALPRACTICEGUIDES
Litigation2024
Definitivegloballawguidesoffering
comparativeanalysisfromtop-ranked
lawyers
China:Trends&Developments
RuiLuoandYingZeng
HanKunLawOffices
CHINATrendsanddevelopmenTs
TrendsandDevelopments
Contributedby:
RuiLuoandYingZeng
HanKunLawOffices
HanKunLawOfficesisaleadingfull-servicelawfirminChina.Overtheyears,HanKunhasbeenwidelyrecognisedasaleaderincomplexcross-borderanddomestictransactionsandcompliancematters.Thefirm’smainpracticeareasincludeprivateequity,mergersandac-quisitions,internationalanddomesticcapitalmarkets,investmentfunds,assetmanagement,compliance,bankingandfinance,aviationfi-nance,foreigndirectinvestment,antitrust/com-petition,dataprotection,privateclient/wealth
management,intellectualproperty,bankruptcyandrestructuringanddisputeresolution.Wehavenearly800professionalslocatedinoursevenofficesinBeijing,Shanghai,Shenzhen,HongKong,Haikou,Wuhan,aswellasSin-gapore,aleadingfinancialcentreintheAsia-Pacific.Allourlawyersaregraduatesoftopuniversitiesandhaveextensiveexperienceincomplexcross-bordertransactionsanddisputeresolutionascounseltobothChineseandfor-eignclients.
Authors
RuiLuoisapartneratHanKun.HispracticefocusesonIP
litigationandIP-relatedanti-
monopolydisputeresolution.Hehasparticularexpertisein
representingmultinational
clientsincomplexandhigh-stakesIP-relateddisputesinChina.Inmorethan12yearsof
practice,MrLuohasrepresentedclientsinIPdisputesbeforeallkeyIPcourtsinChina.WithhisdeepinsightsintotheIPprotectionsysteminChina,MrLuohashelpedhisclientswin
manylandmarkcases.Anumberofthese
caseshavebeenselectedasguidelinecasesbytheSupremePeople’sCourt,BeijingHighPeople’sCourt,andBeijingIPCourt.
YingZengisofcounselatHanKun.Herpracticefocusesoncommercialdisputeresolution(includingarbitrationand
litigation)andwhite-collar
litigationandinvestigations.InhermanyyearsofpracticeintheUSand
China,MsZenghasrepresentedandadvisedmultinationalanddomesticcompaniesfrom
variousindustriesinwide-rangingcomplex
commercialdisputesbeforeChinesecourts,
UScourts,andmajorarbitrationinstitutions.
MsZengistrulybilingualandculturallyfluentacrossjurisdictionsandparticularlyknownforherexpertiseinadvisingclientstohandle
cross-borderdisputes.MsZengisadmittedtopracticeinMainlandChina,Pennsylvania,andNewJersey.
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CHINATrendsanddevelopmenTs
Contributedby:RuiLuoandYingZeng,HanKunLawOffices
HanKunLawOffices
9/F,OfficeTowerC1
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Beijing100738
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Tel:+861085255500
Fax:+861085255522
Email:rui.luo@
Web:
Introduction
Inthepost-COVID-19era,China’sbusinessenvironmentandlegalregimecontinuetoevolve,bringingnewchangestothelitigationlandscape.Theyear2023hasseenseveralkeydevelopments,includingamendmentstotheCivilProceduralLaw,changesinthehighercourts’jurisdictionovercomplexdisputesandretrials,andtheabolitionofthelegalisationrequirementinlitigation.Thesechangesaimtoenhanceefficiency,fairness,andpredictabilityinChineselitigation.ThisarticleexplorestheseimportantshiftsandtheirimpactonChina’sliti-gationlandscape.
On1September2023,ChinareleaseditsnewlyamendedCivilProceduralLaw(the“AmendedCPL”).Theamendments,takingeffectfrom1January2024,primarilyfocusontheforeign-relatedcivilproceduresection,coveringabroadrangeoftopicsincludingjurisdiction,service,collectionofevidence,andrecognitionandenforcementofforeignarbitralawardsandjudg-ments.Thisisthefirstsubstantivemodificationtoforeign-relatedcivilprocedurerulessincethepassageoftheoriginalCivilProcedureLawin1991andholdspracticalsignificanceforhow
foreign-relatedcivilandcommercialcaseswillbehandledinChinainthefuture.ThisarticlefirsthighlightsthemajorchangesintheAmendedCPLandthenintroducesotherrecenttrendsanddevelopmentsinlitigationinChina.
AmendedRulesonCourtJurisdictionOver
Foreign-RelatedCases
RegardingthejurisdictionofPRCcourtsoverforeign-relatedcivilcases,theAmendedCPLhasaddedfivenewclausescomparedwiththepreviousversion(Articles277,278,280-282),andthetwoexistingclauseshavebeensupple-mentedwithrulesexpandingthescenarioswheretheChinesecourtsmayhearcasesinvolvingaforeignelement(Articles276and279).Thesenewchangesincludeaddingmorejurisdictionalnexuses,prescribingthelegalstandardofforumnonconveniens,andspecifyingthecriteriatoacceptorstayadomesticcasewhenthereisaparallellegalproceedingalreadypendingbeforeaforeigncourt.
Additionalgroundstoexercisejurisdiction
Underthe2023Amendments,thePRCcourtjurisdictionhasbeenexpandedinthreeways.Thefirstnewnexusisthe“appropriatecon-
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nection”withChina.Traditionally,theChinesecourtsmayhearcasesagainstaforeignpartywithoutdomicileinChinaunderspecifiedcir-cumstances–ie,thecontractisexecutedorper-formedinChina,thesubjectmatterorassetsavailableforseizurearelocatedwithinChina,theinfringementacttakesplaceinChina,ortheforeignpartyhasarepresentativeofficeinChina.
Inadditiontotheseconnections,theAmendedCPLempowersChinesecourtstoexercisejuris-dictionoveraforeign-relatedcasewherethedis-putehas“otherappropriateconnections”tothePRC(Article276).ThisadditionoffersChineseentitieswhoconductcross-borderbusinessesincreasedaccesstolitigationindomesticcourtswithlowercostsandenhancedefficiency.
Infact,beforethe2023Amendments,theseadditionalgroundshadalreadybeenactivelyarguedinaseriesofhigh-profilestandardessen-tialpatent-relatedmultinationallawsuitssuchasZTEvConversant(2020),OPPOvSharp(2021),OPPOvNokia(2022)andOPPOvInterdigital(2023),wheretheSupremePeople’sCourtcon-firmedChinesecourtjurisdictionoverworldwidelicensingfeedisputesbasedontheappropriateconnectionswithChina.
Thesecondaspectofthebroadenedjurisdic-tionisreflectedinthenewrulesonexpressandimpliedconsenttojurisdictionbyPRCcourts.TheAmendedCPLallowsthepartiestoselectaPRCcourttoadjudicateaforeign-relateddis-putebywrittenagreement(Article277).Despitetheprovisionitselfbeingsilentonthespecificcriteriafortheparties’forumselectionclause,itisareasonablereadingfromthecontextofthelawthattheremustbeatleastsome“appropri-ateconnection”withChina.Additionally,whenapartydoesnotchallengethejurisdictionofthecourt,answerthecomplaint,orraisecounter-
claims,thepartywillbedeemedtohaveaccept-edthejurisdictionoftheChinesecourt.
Lastly,twotypesoflitigationwhereChinesecourtshaveexclusivejurisdictionhavebeenaddedintheAmendedCPL–ie,disputesaris-ingoutofincorporation,dissolution,andliquida-tionofthebusinessentitiesregisteredinChinaandthevalidityoftheresolutionsthereof;anddisputesoverthevalidityofintellectualpropertyrightsgrantedwithinChina(Article279).Thishasfurtherbroadenedthescopeofscenariosinwhichforeign-relateddisputesfallunderthejurisdictionofPRCcourt.
Adoptionoftheforumnonconveniensdoctrine
ThedoctrineofforumnonconveniensisnottypicallyappliedinChina’slegalsystemasitisaconceptprimarilyassociatedwithcommonlawcountriesandinterpretedbycaselaws.TheAmendedCPL,forthefirsttime,adoptedthedoctrineofforumnonconveniensintotheleg-islation,allowingadefendanttoseekdismissalwhentheChinesecourtisnotthemostappropri-ateorconvenientforumtodecidethecase(Arti-cle282).Thismeansthatdespitebeinggrantedthebroadenedauthoritytoassertjurisdiction,Chinesecourtswillstilltakeapractical,flexible,andbalancedapproachtodeterminingthejuris-dictionofcross-borderdisputes.Thischangealsoreflectsanopen-mindedattitudeofChineselawmakerstoacceptandapplyconceptsfromtheinternationalcommunity.
Underthisrule,dismissalcanhappenwhenthefollowingconditionsaremetatthesametime:
•thefactsindisputedonotoccurinChinaanditwouldbeinconvenienteitherfortheChi-
nesecourtstohearthecaseorforthepartiestoparticipateinthelitigation;
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•thereisnoagreementbetweenthepartiesreferringthedisputetotheChinesecourts;
•thedisputedoesnotfallundertheexclusivejurisdictionofaChinesecourt;
•thecasedoesnotinvolvethesovereigntyissue,nationalsecurityorpublicinterestofChina;or
•itismoreconvenientforaforeigncourttoadjudicatethedispute.
Thedismissalisnecessarilywithprejudice.IfaforeigncourtrefusestohearthecaseafterthedismissalbytheChinesecourts,theplaintiffmayre-filethecaseinChina.
Co-ordinationbetweenparallelproceedings
AsChineseentitiescontinuetoexpandtheirglobalfootprint,theymaysubjectthemselvestothejurisdictionofmultiplecourts.ThisraisesthepracticalquestionofwhatChinesecourtsshoulddoifacomplaintisfiledinChinawhilelegalproceedingsarealreadypendinginafor-eigncourt.The2023Amendmentsproactivelyaddressthisissueandprovideclearrulestohelpjudgesandlitigatorsnavigatethissituation(Arti-cles280-281).
Asageneralrule,atthetimeofthefiling,theChinesecourtshavethediscretiontodecidewhethertoacceptthecasesubjecttocertainrestrictions(eg,thecaseisnotsubjecttotheexclusivejurisdictionofPRCcourtsorthecasedoesnotgiverisetonationalinterestorsecurityconcerns).Ifthecasepassesthefilingstage,theChinesecourtscanstilldismissthecaseorstaythePRCproceedingupontheapplicationbythepartiesunlessthereisanexpresswrittenagree-mentchoosingaChinesecourttohearthecase,thecaseissubjecttotheexclusivejurisdictionofthePRCcourts,orthePRCcourtsaremoreconvenienttohearthecase.Thisco-ordinationprescribedbytheamendmentsstrikesagood
balancebetweenrespectingtheparties’free-domtochooseanappropriateforumfortheirdisputeandthejudicialpowertointerveneandredressgrievancesofanaffectedparty.
FlexibleMethodsofServiceonForeignParties
CourtsinChinahavelongbeentacklingthechallengeofefficientlyservingforeignparties,oftenresultinginsignificantdelaysinforeign-relatedcases.Since1January2023,whentheSupremePeople’sCourtgrantedthedistrictcourtsjurisdictionoverfirstinstanceforeign-relatedcivilandcommercialcases,thischal-lengehasbecomeincreasinglycommonatalllevelsoftheChinesejudiciary.Inresponsetopracticalissuesfacedincourt,theAmendedCPLhasintroducedsignificantchangestotheprovisionsconcerningforeign-relatedservice.Ithassupplementedseveralalternativemeth-odsandloweredthebarrierstoexistingservicemethodstargetingforeignparties(Article283).Thesechangesinclude:
•removingtherestrictionsthatpreviously
mandatedexplicitpriorauthorisationfor
attorneysacceptingserviceonbehalfoftheprincipal,preventinganyavoidanceofservicethroughdeliberatemanipulationofthepowerofattorney;
•extendingthescopeofalternativeservicestoincludetheforeigndefendant’swhollyownedenterprisesregisteredinChina,representativeoffices,andbranchesestablishedinChina
andremovingthepriorauthorisationrestric-tions;
•allowingserviceondomesticenterprisesin
lieuofservingontheirforeignlegalrepresent-ativesorprincipalofficialswhentheyshare
co-defendantstatus;
•allowingserviceonthelegalrepresenta-
tivesorprincipalofficialsofforeigncorporate
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defendants,ifthelegalrepresentativesorprincipalofficialsarebasedinChina;
•permittingserviceviaelectronicmeanswherethereceiptcanbeconfirmedunlessprohib-
itedbythelawsofthecountrywheretherecipientislocated;
•enablingalternativeservicethroughother
methodsagreeduponbytherecipient,
providedthatsaidmethoddoesnotviolatethelawsofthecountrywheretherecipientislocated;and
•shorteningthestatutoryperiodforpublic
announcementservicefromthreemonthsto60days.
Theseamendmentscollectivelycontributetoamorestreamlinedandpracticalsystemforserv-ingforeignparties,ultimatelyenhancingtheoverallefficiencyandeffectivenessofthepro-cessinforeign-relatedcases.
ExpandedChannelstoObtainEvidenceLocatedOverseas
AsacorollaryoftheexpandedjurisdictionofChinesecourtsoverforeign-relateddisputes,efficientandpracticalmeanstoobtainevidenceoutsideChinawhilerespectingthesovereigntyofforeigncountriesneedtobeprescribed.TheAmendedCPLnotonlycontinuestorecognisethetraditionalchannels(internationaltreatiesanddiplomaticchannels)forPRCcourtstoengageinevidencecollectionoutsideChina,butitalsoaddsthreemoreoptionstoassistthepartiesingatheringevidence,ifnotprohibitedbytheapplicablelocallaw.Thesenewmeansinclude:
•whenpartiesandwitnessesareChinese
nationals,thecourtmayentrusttheChineseembassyorconsulatetoobtaintheevidenceonitsbehalf;
•thepartiesmayagreetoofferevidencebyinstantmessagingtools;and
•otherapproachesthatareagreeduponbytheparties.
ItisadvisedthattheseexpandedavenuesareonlyapplicabletothecollectionofevidencebyChinesecourtsfromoverseas,notthereverseprocess.WhenaforeigncourtneedstocollectevidencefromChina,ithastomakearequestforjudicialassistanceincompliancewithinter-nationaltreatiestowhichChinaisapartyortheprincipleofreciprocity.On30March2023,theMinistryofJusticeissuedCommonQuestionsandAnswersonInternationalCivilandCommer-cialJudicialAssistance,inwhichitreiteratedtherestrictiononforeigncourtsandpartiescollect-ingevidencedirectlyfrompartiesinChinaforuseinforeigncourtproceedings.
ClearerStandardsforRefusingtoRecogniseandEnforceForeignJudgments
ThecurrentCPLonlycontainsageneralprovi-sionontheenforcementofforeignjudgments:anapplicationtoenforceajudgmentmustbereviewedinaccordancewithinternationaltrea-tiesthatChinahasratifiedorparticipatedinorbasedontheprincipleofreciprocity;andthecourtsshouldnotrecogniseorenforceaforeignjudgmentconflictingwiththebasicprinciplesofthePRClaw,nationalsovereignty,nationalsecu-rity,orpublicinterest.The2023Amendmentssetforthfouradditionalgroundsfordenyingrec-ognitionandenforcement,including:
•theforeigncourtlacksjurisdictiontohearthecase;
•thedefendantwasnotdulysummoned,givenareasonableopportunitytopresentitscase,orproperlyrepresentedbylegalcounsel
whenthedefendantlackedthecapacitytolitigateonitsown;
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•thejudgmentwasobtainedbyfraud;and
•aChinesecourthasalreadyruledonthe
samedisputeoralreadyrecognisedarulingbyaforeigncourtonthesamedispute.
Theseadditionsnecessitateamorethoroughexaminationofproceduralaspectsofaforeignjudgmentbythecourts,aligningwithestab-lishedinternationalstandardsinthisregard.TheAmendedCPLalsoenhancestheco-ordi-nationofconcurrentproceedingsinthecontextofenforcement.IfanapplicationforenforcingaforeignjudgmentissubmittedtotheChinesecourthandlingthesamedispute,theChinesecourtmaysuspendtheongoinglitigationuntiladecisiononenforcementisrendered.
Inessence,theAmendedCPLreflectsChina’scommitmenttoestablishinganequitableandappealinglegallandscapeforbothdomesticandforeignpartiesinvolvedinlitigation.Althoughthetrueeffectoftheseamendmentswillonlybedis-cernibleaftertheirimplementationin2024,theAmendedCPLislikelytoprovidefurtherflexibil-ity,clarity,efficiency,andpredictabilityinlitigat-ingandtryingcross-borderdisputesinChina.
OtherTrendsandDevelopmentsinLitigationin2023
Continuedimplementationofpretrial
mediationinChina
TheuseofpretrialmediationinChinawasfirstintroducedbytheSupremePeople’sCourtin2010asasupplementaryapproachtocivillawsuits,anditwassubsequentlyincorpo-ratedintotheCivilProcedureLawinthe2012Amendment.Currently,thereareprimarilytwomethodsforpretrialmediationinpractice.Oneinvolvesthedocketingchamberjudgedirectlyfacilitatingmediationbetweenthepartieswithina30-daytimeframetoresolvethedisputebeforeformaldocketing.Theothermethod,knownas
thealternativedisputeresolution(ADR)mecha-nism,entailsthecourtoutsourcingmediationtoasocialorganisationwiththeparties’consent.
Withoveradecadeofimplementation,pretrialmediationhasgainedwidespreadacceptanceinChinesecourts,significantlyenhancingtheeffi-ciencyoflitigation.Forinstance,inShenzhen,andGuangdong,courtsactivelyengageinpre-litigationmediationtohelppartiessavetimeandresourcesbyresolvingdisputesbeforeenter-ingformallitigationprocedures.Therefore,itisadvisableforpartiestofamiliarisethemselveswithlocalcourtrulesandbewell-preparedtoleveragethepretrialmediationprocesseffective-ly.Thepartiesarealsoremindedtoassesstheimpactofthepretrialmediationonthestatuteoflimitations.
UpdatedregimeonheightenedjurisdictionandretrialbytheSupremeCourt
TheChinesecourtsystemconsistsoffourlevelsofcourts:theSupremePeople’sCourt,whichistheapexcourt,followedbythehigher,interme-diate,andbasicpeople’scourts,eachwithitsownjurisdictionandresponsibilities.On28July2023,theSupremePeople’sCourtissuedtheGuidingOpinionsonStrengtheningandStand-ardisingtheWorkofElevatedJurisdictionandRetrialofCases(the“Guidelines”),whichfurtherstreamlinedtheprocessofwhenandhowacasemaybesenttoahighercourtforadjudicationinthefirstinstanceandalsosetforththerulesforretrialbytheSupremePeople’sCourt.
Therulesconcerningheightenedjurisdictionareapplicabletocriminal,civil,andadministrativecases.Inthesecases,highercourtshavetheauthoritytodirectlyadjudicateeligiblecasesuponrequestfromlowercourtsorexercisingtheirinherentjurisdiction.Theseeligiblecasesincludethoseofaneworcomplexnature,or
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thosethathavesignificantlegalimplicationsforfutureapplication.Additionally,regardingretri-als,theSupremeCourthasreinstateditsauthor-itytodeterminewh
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