西方中世纪文化概况(英文版)

西方中世纪文化概况(英文版).pptMiddleAgesisaperiodofEuropeanhistoryfromthe5thcenturytothe15thcenturyWhyisitcalledMiddleAges?TheMiddleAgesisoneofthethreemajorperiodsinthemostenduringschemeforanalyzingEuropeanhistory:classicalcivilization(orAntiquity),theMiddleAges,andthemodernperiod.TheperiodfollowedthefalloftheWesternRomeEmpirein476,andprecededtheEarlyModernEra.Itis"Middle"inthesenseofbeingbetweenthetwootherperiodsintime,ancienttimesandmoderntimes.ThetermfirstappearsinLatinin1469asmediatempestas(middletime).Thetermmediumaevum(MiddleAges)isfirstrecordedin1604.Renaissancescholarshiprestoreddirectlinkstotheclassicalperiod,thusbypassingtheMedievalperiod.WhatwillbeconjuredupinyourmindwhenMiddleAgesismentioned?KnightsSuperstition/unscientificCruelty/inhumanDarknessActually,wecangetakindofimageofMiddleAgesfromsomefamousmoviesKingArthurKnightsofRoundtableGodmakeyouagoodmanandfailnotofbeauty.TheRoundTablewasfoundedinpatience,humility,andmeekness.Thoushouldstbeforallladiesandfightfortheirquarrels,andeverbecourteousandneverrefusemercytohimthataskethmercyforaknightthatiscourteousandkindandgentlehasfavorineveryplace.Thoushouldstneverholdaladyorgentlewomanagainstherwill.

ChargeGiventotheKnightsbyKingArthurTheOrder'sdominantideawastheloveofGod,men,andnobledeeds.Thecrossintheemblemwastoremindthemthattheyweretolivepureandstainlesslives,tostriveafterperfectionandthusattaintheHolyGrail.

(TheGrailisasymbolofGod'sgrace,availabletoallbutonlyfullyrealizedbythosewhopreparethemselvesspiritually.)TheRedDragonofKingArthurrepresentedtheirallegiancetotheKing.TheRoundTablewasillustrativeoftheEternityofGod,theequality,unity,andcomradeshipoftheOrder,andsinglenessofpurposeofalltheKnights.TheEmblemoftheKnightsInaword,aknightwaspledgedtoprotecttheweak,tofightforthechurch,tobeloyaltohislordandtorespectwomenofnoblebirth.Thesesruleswereknownascodeofchivalry,fromwhichthewesternideaofgoodmannersdeveloped.tournamentsCodeofChivalryDutiestocountrymenandfellowChristians:thiscontainsvirtuessuchasmercy,courage,valor,fairness,protectionoftheweakandthepoor,andintheservant-hoodoftheknighttohislord.Thisalsobringswithittheideaofbeingwillingtogiveone’slifeforanother’s;whetherhewouldbegivinghislifeforapoormanorhislord.CodeofChivalryDutiestoGod:thiswouldcontainbeingfaithfultoGod,protectingtheinnocent,beingfaithfultothechurch,beingthechampionofgoodagainstevil,beinggenerousandobeyingGodabovethefeudallord.CodeofChivalryDutiestowomen:thisisprobablythemostfamiliaraspectofchivalry.Thiswouldcontainwhatisoftencalledcourtlylove,theideathattheknightistoservealady,andafterherallotherladies.Mostespeciallyinthiscategoryisageneralgentlenessandgraciousnesstoallwomen.IsChivalry“Dead”?EversinceFeminismhasbecomemainstream,therehasbeenasayingintheUSthat“chivalryisdead”,meaningthatthereisnoneedformentodothingslikeholdadoorfororbeextrapolitetoalady.Oftentimes,afterdoingsomethingniceforaladylikeopeningadoorforherorlettingherthroughthedoorfirst(“ladiesfirst”),wewillsometimesjokinglysay“chivalryisn’tdead”.KnighthoodTheprocessofbecomingaknightwasdividedintothreestages.Whenoneiseightornineyearsold,heisapage.Ataroundfourteenorfifteenyearsofage,hebecomesasquire.Then,afterrigoroustraining,hecanfinallybecomeaknight,thoughmanypeopletrainhardandneverachievethatstatus.Thereisalwaysaceremonywhereapersonisknightedordubbedbyhislord,king,orqueen.PageAyoungboyservedasapageforaboutsevenyears,runningmessages,serving,cleaning,andevenlearningthebasicsofcombat,andthelordhewasworkingforwouldusuallytreathimfairly.Thelordsometimesgavethepageprivatecombattrainingfromtheageofsevenuntilhewasfourteen.SquireThiswasthestagebetweenpageandknightandwascharacterizedbyintensetraining.KnightIdubtheeone,Idubtheetwice,Idubthee,sir_______,knightof_______.BraveHeartSirWilliamWallace,a13thcenturyScottishKnightwhogainedrecognitionwhenhecametotheforefrontoftheFirstWarofScottishIndependencebyopposingKingEdwardIofEngland.RobinHoodisaheroicoutlawinEnglishfolklore.AhighlyskilledArcherandswordsman,heisknownfor"robbingfromtherichandgivingtothepoor,“assistedbyagroupoffellowoutlawsknownashisMerryMen.TraditionallyRobinHoodandhismenaredepictedwearingLincolnGreenclothes.WhataresomecharacteristicsoftheMiddleAgesthatyoucanthinkof?ManysmallerkingdomsWarfareChristian(Catholic)HowdothesecontrastwiththeperiodofRome?OnelargeEmpire“PaxRomana”PolytheisticRomanreligionSubdivisionofMiddleAgestheEarlyMiddleAges(476-1000),theHighMiddleAges(1000–1300),andtheLateMiddleAges(1300–1453).Inthe19thcentury,theentireMiddleAgeswasoftenreferredtoasthe"DarkAges".Butthehistorianshelddifferentpointsofview.SocialStructureAcompletelynewpoliticalandsocialinfrastructurebasedonpowerfulregionalnoblefamiliesdevelopedbetween5th-8thcenturies.Newly-establishedkingdoms:Ostrogoths（东哥德族）（Italy)；TheodoricisthemostsuccessfulGothicEmperor.Visigoths(西哥德族）(Spain)；FranksinFranceandwestGermany;Anglo-SaxonsinEngland.Gothswereregardedasthemostsuccessful“blond-hairedpeoples”byalloftheGermanicpeopleswhoweresettledwithinoldEmpire.TheAnglo-SaxonworldresembledtheheroicageofancientGreeceinmanyways.Intheirworld，thecentralvalueishonorandglory，theprimaryoccupationwasfighting,andtheeconomicsystemwasbasedonplunderandtheopen-handeddistributionofriches.Anglo-Saxonswerepagans.Christianitycamefromoutside.FeudalismWhydidfeudalismbecomethedominantsocialsystem?FeudalismFeudalism–Latin“feudum”agrantofland.CollapseofcentralizedpowerAttacksofVikingsSurrenderlandandpersonalfreedomtocounts(公爵）,dukes,andotherlocallordsinreturnforprotectionandsecurity.Kingawardedlandgrantstotheirnobles,baron(男爵）andbishopsinreturnfortheircontributionofsoldierstothekings’armyLowest:Peasant,serf(workingforthelordsandlivingconditionisterrible)Manor（庄园）Feudalismlasteduntil13thcenturyDecline:Reducedpopulation(blackdeath)SerfboughttheirfreedomRentsandmoneypaymentreplacedservice.Freeserfsprovidedfreelaborforthecash-cropfarmingandcapitalist–manufacturing.BattleofToursOnOctober10,732,therewasafamousbattle,oftenconsideredoneofthemost(ifnotTHEmostimportantbattleinWesternhistory).IttookplaceinbetweenthecitiesofToursandPoitiers.TheFranks(modern-dayFrench)wereunitedunderCharlesMartel,andtheSaracens(Islamicarmy)wasalliedunderAbdulRahmanAlGhafiqi,whowaskilledinthisbattle.Notably,theFrankisharmywonwithoutuseofcavalry(horses).TheFrankshadabout15,000-20,000soldiers,whiletheSaracenshadabout20,000-25,000soldiers.IftheFrankshadlost,theSaracenswerelikelytoconqueramajorityofEurope.Somanymoderndayscholarsseethisasa“laststand”(最后一搏),meaningafterthisfight,therearenootherchances.BattleofTourscrusadesTheriseofIslamismKnightsPopeKingsCrusadesFirstCrusade1095–1099

GodfreyofBouillon,aFrenchknight,leaderoftheFirstCrusadeandfounderoftheKingdomofJerusalem.

MedievalillustrationofthecaptureofJerusalemduringtheFirstCrusade,1099SecondCrusade1147–1149FrenchandSouthGermanarmies,undertheKingsLouisVIIandConradIIIrespectively,marchedtoJerusalemin1147butfailedtowinanymajorvictories

ThirdCrusade1187–1192kingRichardIofEngland(RichardtheLionheart),outsidethePalaceofWestminsterinLondon.Templarknights,PoorFellow-SoldiersofChristandoftheTempleofSolomonintheirdistinctivewhitemantleswitharedcross,wereamongthemostskilledfightingunitsoftheCrusades.OfficiallyendorsedbytheRomanCatholicChurcharound1129,theOrderbecameafavouredcharitythroughoutChristendom,andgrewrapidlyinmembershipandpower.Non-combatantmembersoftheOrdermanagedalargeeconomicinfrastructurethroughoutChristendom,innovatingfinancialtechniquesthatwereanearlyformofbankingandbuildingmanyfortificationacrossEuropeandtheHolyLand.TheTemplars'existencewastiedcloselytotheCrusades;whentheHolyLandwaslost,supportfortheOrderfaded.AlltheeightCrusadesachievedverylittle.Crusadesattractedyoungersonsoffeudalnobilityandlesserknights,whosoughtopportunitiestoobtainlandandenhancetheirsocialstatus.Thecrusadeswerebrutalandvicious,andthecrusaderswereoftenimpulsedbybothgreedandpiety.Doubtsaboutthespiritualimportanceofsuchwarandtheriseofcentralizedmonarchies,whoserulersusuallyregardedtheCrusadesaswastefulandvaincontributedtothedeclineoftheCrusade.TheeraoftheCrusadescametoanend,andsodidtheageoftheindependentwarrioraristocracy.Newstructures

11th-12thcenturies:peasants,lords,andmonksLaterpartof12thcentury:townandcitiesemergedMerchants;craftsman,innkeepers,travelers;moneylendersUrbansocietylackedrespectforaristocracyandwasnotinterestedintheircultofviolence.NoblesneedscitiestomaintaintheirluxuriouslifestyleTownswererefugesfordesperatepeasantsandtheytrytheirfortunesincities.Merchants:VenetianMarcoPolo(1254-1324)Magnate:(capitalists)PopularcraftsmenandtradesmenSocietyofpeopleappearedUrbancultureNortherntownsCapitalconcentrated,laborspecialized,.Wealthypatricians,themerchants-rapiers,theycontroltherawmaterial,equipment,capital;setstandard,priceandwages.Mastersskilledcraftsmen:guildstoavoidcompetitionUnskilledartisansbluenailsFairsappearedintownsandcitiesGuildsAguildisanassociationofcraftsmeninaparticulartrade(行业).Someexamplesmightbeashoemaker’sguild,ablacksmith’sguild,acarpenter’sguild,etc.FirstuniversitiesIntellectuallifeflourishedSubjects:Philosophy,medicineandlawFeatures:Self-governing;theirownrulesaboutdressing,classroomactivities,andcurriculum.Bologna:lawParis:liberalartsandtheologyInfluencedbyAristotelianthoughtReligionBecauseofalackofcentralempire,thenewdominantinstitutionfortheMiddleAgeswastheCatholicChurch.FigureslikeSt.AugustineofHippohelpedspreadChristianitytomanydifferentareas.LocalnoblesandlandlordsoftenhadtojustifytheirpowerbyevokingGod.Sometimes,warsweredeclaredinthenameofGod.InEngland,acitywasnoteventallowedtobecalledacityuntilithadacathedralinit.ThesethingsshowhowomnipresenttheinfluenceofChristianitywas.TheCatholicChurchWhatthingsdoyouknowabouttheCatholicChurch?WhatisthestructureoftheCatholicChurch?Whoistheleader?HowdidtheCatholicChurchexercisepower?TheCatholicChurchTheCatholicChurchwas(andstillis)aninstitutioncenteredinRome.AmongthebelieversofCatholicism,thePopeservesasamediatorbetweentheheavenlyworldandtheearthlyworld,soalotoftrustisputintothewordofthePope.Often,thechurchwouldexercisepowerthroughinquisitions（宗教审判）andexcommunication（驱逐教会）.HierarchyoftheChurchPopeCardinalArchbishopBishopPriestExcommunicationExcommunicationmeansthatyouarenolongerapartoftheCatholicChurch.Imaginethatyouareapope,andyouwantakingtoobeyyou.Howcanexcommunicationusedtoenforceyourownwill?InquisitionAninquisitioniswhenevertheChurchdecidesthatitistimetocrackdownonheretics.Crackdownonsth–对。。。严惩不贷.Crackdown–强制镇压Heretic–异教徒HowdoesaninquisitionincreasethepoweroftheChurch?WhydoyouthinkthattheChurchwassosuccessfulatholdingandmaintainingsomuchpowerduringtheMiddleAges?Whogivesthechurchthepower?WhydoyouthinkthattheChurchwassosuccessfulatholdingandmaintainingsomuchpowerduringtheMiddleAges?Whogivesthechurchthepower?ThetwoanswersthatIthinkaremostimportantare“Faith”and“Fear”.FaithisimportantbecauseifpeopledidnotbelieveinJesus,therewouldbenoreasontobelieveinthePope.FearisimportantbecauseoftentimestheChurchusedcruelmethodsinordertokeeppeoplebelieving.TortureandPunishmentChurches,landlords,nobles,andkingsallusedseveremethodsforpunishingpeoplewhodidnotcomplywiththeirlaws.Doyourecognizethischair?TortureandPunishmentTherearemanytorturedevicespicturedhere.Amongthemisthefamous“ironmaiden.”MonasticLifeMonasteriesweresomeoftheonlyplaceswhereliteracysurvivedinthemiddleages.Inmanyplaces,itwastheonlypossiblewaytoreceiveanykindofeducation.Herewecanseeadrawingbyastudentwhodoodled,perhapsduringalecture.MonasticLifeCanonicalhoursaredivisionsoftimewhichserveasincrementsbetweentheprescribedprayersofthedailyround.ABookofHourscontainssuchasetofprayers.Thelifeofamonkwasaverybusylifeofprayerandworship.BookofHoursTheBookofHourswasaMedievalcollectionofChristiantextsandprayers.Theywereoftenhighlydecorated.BookofHoursAristotelianChallengeTheintroductionofworksofAristotleintothewestinlate12thcreatedaprofoundintellectualcrisis.Hisworksonnaturalphilosophy,ethicsandmetaphysicsweretranslatedintoLatin.Logic,ordialectic,wasseenastheuniversalkeytoknowledge.Theuniversitysystemwasbasedonitsrigorousapplicationtotraditionaltextsoflaw,philosophy,andScripture.ChristianintellectualsacceptedtheAristotelianmethodmetAristotle’sconclusion:aworldwithoutanactive,consciousGod,aworldinwhicheverythingcouldbeunderstoodwithoutreferencetoadivinecreator.Reaction:criticismVsfullacceptanceIrreconcilabletruth:oneknowledgethroughdivinerevelation;theotherthroughhumanreason.ScholasticismScholasticismisamethodofcriticalthoughtwhichdominatedteachingbytheacademicsofmedievaluniversitiesinEuropefromabout1100–1500,andaprogramofemployingthatmethodinarticulatinganddefendingorthodoxyinanincreasinglypluralisticcontext.Itoriginatedasanoutgrowthof,andadeparturefrom,Christianmonasticschools.Asaprogram,scholasticismbeganasanattempttoreconcileChristiantheologywithclassicalandlateantiquityphilosophy.ThomasAquinasDeniedthedichotomyoffaithandreasonDefendtheintegrityofhumanreasonandtoreconcileitwithdivinerevelation.HumanreasoncouldnotalwaysleadtoconclusionsThenatureofGod,creationandhumansoulcouldnotberesolvedbyreasonalone.bridgethegapbetweenAristotleandecclesiastical(基督教的）orthodoxy（正统）HeresyJohnWycliffe(1330-1384)Englishphilosopher,theologian,andreligiousreformer,aforerunnerofProtestantReformation(attackthewealthandpropertyofthechurch.)WilliamOckham(1300-1349)EnglishphilosopherandScholastictheologian.ImperialpowershouldbederivedfrompeopleratherthanthePopeandthatpeopleshouldbefreetodeterminetheirownformofgovernmentandtoelectrulers.Governmentshouldbeentirelysecular.Denytheabsolutepowerofpope.Radicalpoliticalphilosophy.EmpireandPapacy(教皇制度)ConflictbetweenPopesandEmperorsovertherighttoappointandtoinstillbishopintheiroffice.CompromisesbetweenHenryVandPopeCalixtusIIIsetupthestrongwesternideaofseparatespheresofauthorityforsecularandreligiousgovernment.Popescouldhavegreatpoliticalpower,butfrom13ththeygraduallylostabsoluteauthority.CarolingianAchievement加洛林王朝（Carolingian）是自公元751年统治法兰克王国的王朝。在此之前，其王朝成员以“宫相”的身分涉理王国朝政。在王朝其后的鼎盛时期，加洛林家族在名义上复辟了罗马帝国，也即是开创了后世所谓的神圣罗马帝国。加洛林王朝崛起得快，但也很快没落。查理曼的统一帝国，其子法王路易一世维持了帝国。但其孙辈于843年签署《凡尔登条约》，将统一帝国瓜分为东、中和西三个部分。西法兰克王国，成为后来的法兰西。加洛林王室成员在位直至987年，后被卡佩王朝继承。中法兰克王国，主要包括今日的普罗旺斯，洛林和意大利，在870年签定《梅尔森条约》后，中法兰克王国北部领土被东西法兰克王国瓜分。东法兰西王国，即日后的德国或神圣罗马帝国。加洛林王室的统治结束于911年，此后开始了神圣罗马皇帝选举的先例，紧跟加洛林王朝的是萨克森王朝。TheEmergenceofStatepowerFrenchNationFranceshowsclearsignsofagrowthinroyalpowerduringthe14thcentury,fromtheactivepersecutionofhereticsandlepers(麻风病患者),expulsionoftheJews,andthedissolutionoftheKnightsTemplar.Inallofthesecases,undertakenbyPhilipIV,thekingconfiscatedlandandwealthfromtheseminoritygroups.TheconflictbetweenPhilipIVandPopeBonifaceVIII,aconflictwhichbeganoverPhilip'sunauthorizedtaxationofclergy,endedwiththeviolentdeathofBonifaceandtheinstallationofPopeClementV,aweak,French-controlledpope.ThisactionenhancedFrenchprestige.TheKingsofFranceofthisperiodpresidedovereffectivestatesadministeredbyliteratebureaucrats,andsoughtbaronialconsentfortheirdecisionsthroughearlyversionsofparliamentarysystems,calledtheEstatesGeneral(三级议会）andinEngland,itiscalledtheParliament.NormanConquest:themakingofmodernEnglandWilliamtheConquerordefeatedandkilledtheAnglo-Saxonin1066.（beganthe“FrenchPeriod”)TheNormankingslookedtoEnglandasasourceofrevenue,SotheytransformedAnglo-SaxonruleandbroughtanewpatternofgovernmentItgraduallymakesEnglandthestrongeststateinEurope.Anefficientsystemoffiscalandadministrativesupervision:Checkerboardexchequer(国库）Annualpaymentwererecordedonlongrollsofparchment(羊皮卷）（Piperolls)AuditingsystemAccountingsystemRoyalauthorityovertheEnglishChurchesHenryIIassertedroyalcourtsoverlocalandfeudalones:auniformjudicialproceduresthroughoutthekingdom:thecommonlaw.KingJohnwasforcedtosignMagnaCarta(大宪章）in1215.MagnaCartalimitedtheking’spowersoftaxationandrequiredtrialsbeforepunishment.ThefirsttimethatanEnglishMonarchcameundercontrolofthelaw.EdwardIdefendedremainingcontinentalterritoriesagainstFranceandexpandcommonlaw.

parliamentAssembliesweretheoccasionstoconsult,toraisefundsforwar,topresentroyalprograms,toextracttaxesThewealthypeoplerequirearighttobeconsultedandtoconsenttotaxation.TheEnglishMonarchyincreaseditspowerthroughasystemofroyalcourtsandjusticeandatraditionofrepresentativeparliaments.,combinedwithexactingsystemofaccounting.By1300,Francewithroyalbureaucracy,andEnglandwithitscourtsandaccountants,becamethemostpowerfulstatesinthewest.England,too,beganthe14thcenturywithwarfareandexpansion.EdwardI(17June1239–7July1307),alsoknownasEdwardLongshankswagedwaragainstthePrincipalityofWalesandtheKingdomofScotland,withmixedsuccess,toassertwhatheconsideredhisrighttotheentireislandofGreatBritain.Literature日耳曼蛮族的民间英雄传说《贝奥武甫》、《罗兰之歌》、《尼伯龙根之歌》，亚瑟王传奇，“埃达”叙事系列NationalepicsBeowulfSongofRolandDanteandhisDivineComedyChaucerTheCanterburyTales骑士文学骑士精神和骑士文学的衰败14世纪，步兵日渐重要，逐渐取代骑兵，骑士文学衰败英国“诗歌之父”乔叟的《坎特伯雷故事集》流露出对骑士的讽刺最后一部骑士文学：塞万提斯的《唐吉诃德》ArtandArchitctureRomanesqueGothic哥特式建筑什么是哥特式（Gothic）？哥特式建筑的特征：高耸入云的尖顶，轻盈飘逸的尖形肋拱，纤巧修长的立柱，轻巧优雅的花饰窗格，用石头和玻璃建成基督教唯灵主义的视觉体现罗马式建筑：哥特建筑的前身罗马式教堂（RomanesqueStyle）出现于黑暗时代，盛行于11、12世纪前身是罗马会堂（basilica）圆顶大厅，圆拱，装饰和窗户较少，坚固厚实的墙壁和尖塔，整齐壮观，粗犷有力，庄重威严的气质，严峻沉重罗马式教堂哥特式教堂用华丽彩色的玻璃窗代替了罗马式教堂粗壮的石头墙壁取消罗马式教堂的圆拱，改用尖拱，使之更为陡峭高耸。罗马式拱顶哥特式拱顶亚眠大教堂巴黎宫廷礼拜堂

我们在教堂里感到精神逐渐飞升，肉身遭到践踏。教堂内部就是一个空心的十字架，我们就在这刑具里走动；五颜六色的窗户把血滴和脓汁似的红红绿绿的光线投到我们身上；我们身边呜呜地唱着丧歌；我们脚下满是墓碑和尸骸，精神沿着高耸笔立的巨柱凌空而起，痛苦地和肉身分裂，肉身则像一袭空乏的长袍扑落地上。

海涅TheVirginMaryWhatdothecirclesaroundtheirheadsmean?TheVirginMary…againThemostcommonimagetobefoundinmedievalartisthatoftheVirginMary.Thepaintingsarereferredtoas“Madonna”or“MadonnawithChild”,dependingonwhetherornottheyincludedtheimageoftheinfantJesus.Whoarethepeopleworshipping?ReconstructionoftheTempleofJerusalemScienceandtechnologyThereplacementofRomannumeralswiththedecimalpositionalnumbersystemandtheinventionofalgebraallowedmoreadvancedmathematics.JoustingandtournamentsWhatyousawinthecomicjustnowwasanexampleofjousting,aneventwheretwomountedknights(orsquires)chargetowardeachotherinanattempttoknocktheopponentdownwithalance.JoustingandtournamentsInfact,tournamentswereacommonwaytopasstimeandalsoservesasatraininggroundforknightsandsquires.Inaworldwhereyouarealwaysfightingwiththenearbykingdom,stayingwell-trainedisofutmostimportance.CourtlifeIfyouwereapartofthenobility(贵族),yougenerallylivedandspentmostofyourfreetimeinsideofacastle,abig,fortifiedbuildingusedtodefendagainstenemies.Lifewithinthecastlewasmuchmoreexcitingthanalifelivedbyapeasant.Thereweresomegames,especiallychess,whichthenobleslearnedfromtheMoslems.Banqueting,however,formedthechiefindooramusement.Thelordandhisretainerssatdowntoagluttonousfeastand,astheyateanddrank,watchedthepranksofaprofessionaljesterorlistenedtothesongsandmusicofminstrelsor,itmaybe,heardwithwonderthetalesoffar-offcountriesbroughtbysomereturningtraveller.Sometimes,theywouldspendtimeoutsidethecastle.Themost