产业集群和网络建设外文翻译文献

产业集群和网络建设外文翻译文献PAGEPAGE1Ⅲ-产业集群和网络建设外文翻译文献产业集群和网络建设外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：CLUSTERING,NETWORKINGANDCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995IndustrialdistrictsinEuropeappeartohavesecuredcompetitiveadvantageinthesupplytodemandnichemarkets.Theyhavedonethisbycompetingmainlyonthebasisofquality,design,speedofinnovationandspeedofresponse.Thismightseemfarremovedfrom,forexample,thecottonknitwearclusterofTiruppurinSouthIndia.Thisclusterhasachievedgreatsuccessinexportingbasiccottontextiles,butasyetitshowslittlecapacitytomoveintohighervaluemarketniches(SwaminathanandJeyaranjan1994).AnenormousgulfremainsbetweenthesmallknitwearfirmsofTiruppurandthe‘networksoftechnologicallysophisticated,highlyflexiblemanufacturingfirms’whichPioreandSabel(1984:17)characterizeasthebasisoftheItaliansuccess.However,itwillbearguedherethatthesedifferingcasesdohaveimportantthingsincommon,andthatwhattheyhaveincommonprovidesthepotentialforclusterssuchasTiruppurtoupgradetheirfacilitiesandbecometechnologicallymoresophisticatedandmorecapableofcompetingindemandingmarkets.Whattheyhaveincommonisthecompetitiveadvantagewhichariseswhenenterpriseswhichareclusteredtogetheraredrivenforwardbytheneedsofdemandingcustomers.Theideathattherearegainsinclusteringisoldhatinindustrialeconomics.ItcanbetracedbacktoAlfredMarshall’sanalysisofindustrialdistrictsinBritain.InhisPrinciplesofEconomics(1stedition,1890),Marshallstressedtheeconomieswhich‘canoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(8thedition,1920,221).Hereferstosuchgainsas‘externaleconomies’andseesthemasparticularlyrelevanttosmallfirms.TheconceptofexternaleconomiesisintroducedbyMarshallinordertodrawout(i)whyandhowthelocationofindustrymatters,and(ii)whyandhowsmallfirmscanbeefficientandcompetitive.Inhisownwords,‘wenowproceedtoexaminethoseveryimportantexternaleconomieswhichcanoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(1920:221).Hereferstosuchlocalitiesas‘localizedindustry’or‘industrialdistricts’.Hedoesnotprovideadefinitionforeither,buthisexamplesmakeitclearthathemeantaclusterwithadeepinter-firmdivisionoflabour. Theconceptofexternaleconomiesisessentialtounderstandefficiencyadvantageswhichsmallfirmsderivefromclustering.Thereremains,however,theproblemthattheconceptisrestrictedtounplannedgainsorlosses.AsstatedbyMishan(1971:2),‘theessentialfeatureoftheconceptofanexternaleffectisthattheeffectproducedisnotadeliberatecreationbutanunintendedorincidentalby-productofsomeotherwiselegitimateactivity.Suchincidentaleffectsareofenormousimportanceincontemporaryindustrialdistricts,but-asstressedbyBrusco(1990),PioreandSabel(1984),Trigilia(1989)andothers-thereisalsoconsciouslypursuedjointaction.Suchjointactioncanbeoftwotypes,individualfirmscooperating(forexample,sharingequipmentordevelopinganewproduct)andgroupsoffirmsjoiningforcesinbusinessassociations,producerconsortiaandthelike.Theconceptofcollectiveefficiencybringstogethertheincidentalandconsciouslypursuedfirmsandseekstocapturetheessentialpointthatcompetitivenesscanneitherbeunderstoodnorenhancedbyfocusingonindividualfirms.Collectiveefficiencycanbedefinedasthecompetitiveadvantagesderivedfromlocalexternaleconomiesandjointaction(Schmitz1995b).Aclearunderstandingofwhatbringsaboutthiscollectiveefficiencyiscriticalforbothanalysisandpolicy.Agroupofproducersmakingsimilarthingsinthesamelocalityinitselfbringsfewbenefits.Itdoeshoweverhelpthemtospecialize;itattractssuppliersandbuyers,anditgeneratesapoolofspecializedworkers.AsshownbyRabellotti(1995b)theexternaleconomieswhichariserangefromstaticgainssuchaseasyavailabilityofinputs,todynamicgainssuchasthefastspreadofnewideasofhowtoinnovate.Beinginthesamesectorandlocationalsofacilitatestakingjointactionwhichagaincanrangefrommorestaticconcernssuchasassociationsdefendinglocalproducersindisputeswithgovernmentordynamicconcernssuchastakinggroupsoflocalproducerstoforeigntradefairsinthesearchfornewmarkets.Acommonmisconceptionisthatthestressoncollectiveefficiencymeansdenyingcompetition.Itdoesnot.Onthecontrary,rivalryisoftenparticularlysevereamongstclusteringproducers,butthisneednotstopthemfromjoiningforcestoovercomecommonbottlenecksininfrastructure,inputsupplyoraccesstodistantmarkets.Itisthecombinationofcompetitionandcooperationwhichdrivesthesearchforimprovement.Thecombinationsaremany,atypicalonebeingvariousmanufacturersengaginginclosecooperationwiththeirsuppliers(toimprovequalityandspeedydeliveryofcomponents)andthusoftenbenefitingtheirlocalrivalswhoworkwiththesamesupplier.译文：集群、网络和竞争优势作者：约翰・汉弗莱&休伯特・斯克米兹国籍：英国出处：《中小型企业推动产业集群和网络建设的原则》，由中小型企业机构委托撰写，1995年10月工业区域在欧洲的从供应到需求的市场上表现出强有力的竞争优势。这些竞争优势主要表现为：根本质量、设计、创新和反应的速度。这看起来与南印度的Tiruppur纺织业集群就没什么关系。这个集群已经在出口基本的棉纺织品上取得了巨大成功,但是它却没有能力进入更高价值层次的市场(斯霍米奈森和亚轮加，1994年)。一个极大的差距仍然存在于Tiruppur的小型针织品企业与皮尔罗和塞布尔(1984年:17)所描述的作为意大利成功的基础的“高技术性网络和高弹性制造企业”之间。然而,这里还是会产生争议,这些不同的例子确有着重要的共同点,而这些共同点为譬如Tiruppur这样的集群提供了升级他们设备的潜力，使他们的技术更复杂，以及有能力在需求市场上进行竞争。这些共同点在企业集团应顾客需求扩大的情况下就成为了一种比较优势。产业聚集能产生额外利润的想法已经是工业经济方面的老说法了。那可以追溯到阿尔弗雷德・马歇尔在大不列颠作出的地方性工业理论。在他的《经济学原理》(1890年第1版)中,马歇尔强调了“某一地区内具有相同特征的许多小企业聚集在一起”的经济(1920年,第8版,第221页)。他提到“外部经济”效应，把它们看作是小型企业的特殊相关性。马歇尔提到外部经济的概念是为了给出(i)当地工业因素如何，以及(ii)小公司为什么、如何能有效竞争。用他自己的话来讲,“我们现在进行审查那些某一地区内具有相同特征的小企业聚集在一起产生的重要的外部经济效应(1920年，第221页)。他称这种现象为“地方性工业”或“工业区域”。他没有给这两者给出一个定义，但是从他的案例可以清楚地看出，他指的是在企业内部劳动力高度分工的产业集群。外部经济的概念是了解小型企业从机群获得有效优势本质所在。然而,此外这个效应还存在着额外损益的问题。依照米尚(1971年:2)的陈述“外部经济效益的本质特征是,高效的生产不是一种有计划的创造，而是由一些无意识或者偶然的合理行为所产生的。这样偶然效应对当代工业区域有极大的重要性,但是正如布鲁斯克(1990年)、皮尔罗和塞布尔(1984年)、鹊格利亚(1989年)，和其他人所说，在这一系列行为中必然存在有意识的追求。这一系列行为有两种类型：个别企业合作(例如,共享设备或开发一个新产品)，以及一些企业组成商业协会、生产商财团等等。集合效应带来偶然的和友谊是追求的企业，并寻求既不是已知的也不是被个别企业放大的竞争力的本质所在。集合效应被定义为本地外部经济和一系列行为的比较优势(斯克米兹1995年b)。显而易见，是什么带来了这种集合效应在分析中和政策上都是有争议的。一群生产商在同一个地区生产类似的产品所带来的效益是很小的。集合效应能产生专业化分工；吸引供应商和买家,培养专业的熟练工人群。按瑞罗伯特所解释的(1995年b)外部经济效应是包括静态收益，如简单的投入，和动态收益，如如何革新的新想法产生的速度。在同一个地区、同一个领域，以及利用相同的设备来进行的一系列活动，并且也是包括静态关系，譬如协会为保护地方生产商政府发生争执，和动态关系，譬如使当地生产商进入国际贸易领域，以寻求新的市场。共同的误解是,人们认为集合效应意味着否认竞争。其实，正好相反,竞争在产业聚集的生产商中往往更加激烈,但这不能阻止他们以合作来克服在基础设施、投入、进入远方市场上的共同瓶颈。这是一种既竞争又合作的共同推动产业提升的组合。组合有许多种,一个典型就是各种各样的制造商与他们的供应商密切合作(改进质量和加快各组件的交付)，并且这样一来，他们在当地的与其有着相同的供应商的竞争者也会从中受益。外文：LESSONSFROMDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995Thepurposeofthissectionistoexplorehowcollectiveefficiencycanbefosteredindevelopingcountries.ThisisnotdonebyhypotheticalreasoningbutbydrawingonrealcaseswhichgiveinsightsonhowpublicpolicycanpromoteclusteringandnetworkingofSMEs.Thereis,ofcourse,nowasubstantialexperienceinpoliciesforSMEsindevelopingcountries.Whilerarelyfocusedoncollectiveefficiency,agooddealofprogresshasbeenmadeoverrecentyears,notablyintwoareas:(1)reducingthelargefirmbiasintheoveralllegalandpolicyframework:whilenotalwayspractiseditisawellrecognizedpriority(LiedholmandMead1987;Mead1995;Stewart1989;Young1993);(2)channellingcredittoSMEs:successfullendingschemestendtobebasedlocally,havedecentralizeddecisionmaking,screenloanrequestsonthebasisofcharacteroftheentrepreneurandprojectfeasibility(ratherthancollateral),chargeinterestrateshighenoughtocoveroperatingexpenses,andsometimesusepeerpressureforrepayment(Levitsky1986;LiedholmandMead1987;OteroandRhyne1994;SanyalandPradhan1992).Lessprogresshasbeenmadeinnonfinancialassistance.Mostattemptstoprovidesuchassistancetendtosufferfromthreedeficiencies.First.,theyaretoosupplyoriented-thatis,overlyfocusedoninputsforproduction(skills,technology,rawmaterials)andnotsufficientlyconcernedwithwhowouldbuytheoutputs.Second,theyarerarelysustainable.Thishastwocomponents:thehighcostinreachingouttoamultitudeofSMEsandthelowconcernwithcostrecoveryforsupportservices.Third,theyhaveatbestaone-offeffectontheperformanceoftheassistedenterprisebutrarelyleadtoacapacityforself-helpandcontinuousupgrading.TheTripleCapproachpresentedinthispapertriestoovercomesomeofthosedeficiencies.However,itisnotjustaboutatypeofintervention,butratheritconcernsaparticularconfigurationofSMEs,oneinwhichtheyclusterornetwork.Thisiswhy,beforeplungingfurtherintopolicy,weneedtoestablishwhetherindevelopingcountriesthereisfertilegroundforthenewapproach,inotherwords,whetherclusteringisofrelevancetotheorganizationofmanufacturingindevelopingcountries.1.CLUSTERINGINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTheinternationalattentiongiventoclustersowesmuchtotheEuropean,especiallyItalian,experience.Thequestionaddressedinthissectionishowcommonclustersareindevelopingcountries.Statisticsarenotavailableforthispurpose,butabriefoverviewcanbeprovided-basedonareviewbyNadviandSchmitz(1994),updatedforthispaper.Themainconclusionisthatclusteringseemscommoninawiderangeofcountriesandsectors.SomeclustersinLatinAmericaandAsiahaveacquiredgreatdepthintermsoftheconcentrationofspecializedsuppliersandsupportbodies.AmongthoseforwhichstudiesareavailablearethemetalworkingandtextileindustriesofLudhianaintheIndianPunjab(Tewari1990;1992);theindustryofTiruppurinTamilNadu(Cawthorne1990,1995);thediamondindustryofSuratinGujrat(Kashyap1992);theengineeringandelectronicsclusterofBangaloreinKarnataka(Holmström1993);thefootwearclustersofAgrainUttarPradesh(Knorringa,1993)theSinosValleyinBrazil(Schmitz1995a),TrujilloinPeru(Tavara,1993;SanMartinBaldwinetal.1994),andLeonandGuadalajarainMexico(Rabellotti1993,1995b);theKoreantextileclusterinDaegu(Cho1994);sportsgoodsandsurgicalequipmentinSialkot,cutleryinWazirabadandelectricalfansinGujratinPakistan(Nadvi1992;1995).InAfricanclusters,theinterfirmdivisionoflabourandinstitutionalsupporttendtobelessdeveloped,asobservedinthemetalworking,furnituremaking,garmentandotherclustersinKenya,ZimbabweandTanzania(Rasmussen1991;Sverrisson1993;McCormick1994).Whileprimarilyanurbanphenomena,clusteringcanalsobeafeatureofruralindustrialisation,asinIndonesiawhereonecanfindthespecializationofentirevillages(Weijland1994),forexample,themanufactureofrooftiles(Sandee,1994)orrattanfurnitureinJava(Smyth1992).Withintheurbanarena,clusterslocatedinintermediatetownsseemtohavebeenparticularlysuccessful,asindicatedbytheirgrowthrecordsandabilitytocompeteinexportmarkets.Incontrasttoclustersinsmall-andmedium-sizedtowns,thoseinmajorcitiestendtobelessrootedhistoricallyandhavesometimesemergedfrominformalself-employmentcopingstrategiesofthepoor.Despitethat,manysuchclustersdisplayagrowthpotentialthatgoesbeyondinformalsurvivalstrategiesandindicateslocalizedcompetitivenessbasedonincreasingspecialisationamongstsmallfirms;examplesarethemetalandrepairworkshopsintheTakoradistrictofLima,Peru(Villaran,1993),andSuame,theindustrialshantysuburbofKumasi,Ghana(Dawson1992).Thesearejustsomeoftheexampleswhichcanbeidentifiedintherecentliteratureandwhichsuggestthatclusteringisofsignificancetotheindustrialorganizationofsmall-scalemanufacturingindevelopingcountries.译文：从发展中国家得出的结论作者：约翰・汉弗莱&休伯特・斯克米兹国籍：英国出处：《中小型企业推动产业集群和网络建设的原则》，由中小型企业机构委托撰写，1995年10月这部分的目的是揭示集合效应在发展中国家是如何运作的。这里不是以假设，而是用基于公共政策如何推动中小型企业产业集群及网络发展的真实的案例来说明。当然，现在发展中国家在对中小型企业的政策上有一套正确的经验总结。虽然很少被关注，但是近年来，集合效应取得了很大的进步，主要表现在两个方面：（1）降低大型企业在整个法律和政策中偏好的影响：在被公认的优先权下，它不总是正确的（里德侯和米德，1987年；米德，1995年；斯沃特，1989年；杨，1993年）；（2）