语言学-discourse-analysis教学课件

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis

语篇分析语言学-discourse-analysisMajorcontents

1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p168语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisLanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisFertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.

×语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisPickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNature’smiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening---gettoknowyoursoil.

√语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisAprimarytask

ofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(衔接)语言学-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisTopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息结构)Cohesion(衔接)Coherence(连贯)Discoursemakers(话语标记语)Conversationalanalysis(会话分析)语言学-discourse-analysis2InformationStructureHowdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.语言学-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhe’dcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整体关系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.语言学-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationFormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.语言学-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.语言学-discourse-analysis2.2Topicandcomment

话题和述题Topic话题:whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentOtherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentGiveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.

new/topic

Peterdidn’tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.

given/comment语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMike'shousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidn'twanttoleave,buthecouldn'taffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,I’mgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作业终于做完了！语言学-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentInEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.语言学-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast对比Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.语言学-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast对比Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.语言学-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast对比Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthan

theghost.语言学-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast对比Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.语言学-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast对比Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idon’tmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthe’sgood-looking.语言学-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherence

衔接&连贯Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts?It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.语言学-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherenceWhichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.语言学-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherence3.1Cohesion衔接Thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements(sentencesorsegments)ofadiscourse.Cohesivedevices衔接手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether.Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.语言学-discourse-analysis3.1CohesionAcoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely.A:IsJanehere?B:No,sheisn’t.Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan’tmakehimdrink.Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse?语言学-discourse-analysis3.1.1Reference参照/照应Referencewords:pronouns(it,they..),demonstratives(this,that…),thedefinitearticle(the)anditemslikesuchas.e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Ididn’tknowitwashis.语言学-discourse-analysis3.1.1Reference参照/照应Twotypesofreference:endophora内参照:theinterpretivesourceliesintheco-text.exophora外参照:theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext.e.g.(Maryisstandinghere)Ilikeher.语言学-discourse-analysisEndophora(内参照):anaphora回指:thereferentliesinthepriortext.e.g.Lookatthedog,itisdancing!cataphora后指:thereferentliesinthefollowingtext.e.g.WhenImether,Marylookedill.语言学-discourse-analysisTypesofreference

anaphora回指endophoraReference内参照cataphora后指指称exophora外参照语言学-discourse-analysis3.1.2Substitution替代Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution(toreplaceanounornounphrase)Verbalsubstitution(toreplaceaverbphrase)Clausalsubstitution(toreplaceaclause)语言学-discourse-analysisReferencevs.SubstitutionReferenceisarelationonsemanticlevel.Noun–pronoun/nounphraseJack–himAgroupofstudents–thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico-grammaticallevel,arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.newwatch---newone.语言学-discourse-analysisReferencevs.SubstitutionAsrelationbetweenmeanings,referencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoricandexophoric.Substitutionisarelationwithintext,themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext,anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext.语言学-discourse-analysis3.1.3Ellipsis省略Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy,emphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit?No,Idon’t(likeit).Subtypes:Nominal,verbalandclausalellipsis语言学-discourse-analysis3.1.4Conjunction连词Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.coordinator并列连词

(and,but…)subordinator从属连词

(because,when)conjunctiveadverbs连接副词(however,indeed…)Ifyoudogood,goodwillbedonetoyou;but

ifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,let’sdogood.语言学-discourse-analysis

Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重复Threetypes:synonym同义词collocation上义词3.1.5Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接语言学-discourse-analysisRepetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.语言学-discourse-analysisRepetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.

Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)

Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(generalword)语言学-discourse-analysis

Collocation搭配：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生气的）thefatmanofBombay语言学-discourse-analysis

3.2Coherence连贯

Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees(香榭丽舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.

Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.语言学-discourse-analysis从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事:从前有座山……语言学-discourse-analysisCoherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.

语言学-discourse-analysisCoherenceissthunderlyingthetext---semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage.语言学-discourse-analysis(50)Student:I’velostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:It’safinedaytoday.Student:Soyou’vegotafreedinner.(p197)语言学-discourse-analysisGeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.语言学-discourse-analysis7.4Discoursemarkers

话语标记语Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?语言学-discourse-analysisdiscoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.

conversationalparticles:well

andohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.语言学-discourse-analysisThemainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatext’sstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.语言学-discourse-analysis

7.5ConversationalanalysisTheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylife

iscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).语言学-discourse-analysisThreemechanismsinCAadjacencypairs(相邻语对)preferencestructure(首选结构)presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.语言学-discourse-analysis7.5.1Adjacencypairs相邻语对Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.

Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.语言学-discourse-analysis

(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasn’tme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.语言学-discourse-analysisAdjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.语言学-discourse-analysisTheformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantand expectableasthenextutterance.语言学-discourse-analysisAdjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons传唤-responseassertion-assent赞成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.语言学-discourse-analysis

However,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.

Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列.语言学-discourse-analysis(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight! (=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive? (=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five. (=A2)Client:Yeah—that’sgreat. (=A1)语言学-discourse-analysisAninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.语言学-discourse-analysis(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening? (Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong? (Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter? (Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance. (A4)B:Male. (A3)A:Okey. (A2)B:I’llbetherethen. (A1)语言学-discourse-analysisEx:1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan’t.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson’squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.语言学-discourse-analysis2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?

B:Whatfor?

A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well…uh…50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?

A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I’llberightback.语言学-discourse-analysis7.5.2Preferencestructure

首选结构Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexample,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:语言学-discourse-analysis(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.I’venoidea.d.What’sthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesn’t.语言学-discourse-analysisPreferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.语言学-discourse-analysis(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idon’tsmoke.B’sreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):语言学-discourse-analysis

7.5.3Presequences前序列(63)Jeff:Mornin’,Stan!Stan:Hi.How’sitgoin’?Jeff:Oh,can’tcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon? Stan:Well,Idon’thavemuchchoice! 语言学-discourse-analysisGreetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.

语言学-discourse-analysisGreetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequencesforlongerconversationsbetweenstrangers.Some