联合国贸易发展委员会-关键矿产：供应链、贸易流和增值 Technical note on critical minerals Supply chains,trade flows and value addition 2023

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENT

Technicalnoteon

criticalminerals

Supplychains,tradeflows

andvalueaddition

1

1.Introduction

Themovetowardsalow-carbonfutureiswellunderwayandhasbroughttotheforethe

importanceofseveralmineralsjudgedcriticaltothisprocess.Thesemineralsincludelithium,cobalt,graphite,manganese,andothersessentialtoproducingcleanenergytechnologies,includingsolarpanels,windturbines,rechargeablebatteriesforelectricvehicles(EVs),andgridbatterystorage.Developingcountriesholdlargereservesoftheseminerals.African

countries,forexample,haveabout25percentofglobalreserves,including19percentofthoseneededforEVs.1

Manydevelopingcountriesarealreadyplayingavitalroleinsupplyingworldmarkets,such

astheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,fromwhere68percentofcobaltimportsoriginate,Chile,asignificantlithiumexporter,andIndonesia,whichaccountsfor48percentofnickel

exports.2Since2010,thetypicalquantityofmineralsrequiredforeachnewunitofpowergenerationhasrisenby50percentduetothegrowingproportionofrenewablesintotalenergyproduction.3DemandforsomecriticalmineralsisexpectedtoincreaserapidlyinaNetZeroEmissionsscenario:by115percentforcobaltand454percentforlithiumintheperiodfrom2022to2030.4Withincreaseddemand,thenumberofnewcriticalmineralsprojectsannouncedacross2021and2022wasmorethantwicethelevelofthepreviousdecade.5

Thetypeandvolumeofcriticalmineralsneededfortheenergytransitionvarywithspecificapplicationsandindustries.Forexample,lithium,cobalt,andgraphitearecommonlyusedinlithium-ionbatteriesthatareconsideredmostsuitableforEVs.6Rawcriticalmineralsareprocessedandrefinedtoincreasepurity,enhancetheirperformancecharacteristics,andincreasesuitabilityforspecificapplications.Theprocessedandrefinedcriticalmaterials

enjoysignificantlyhighervaluesthanthoseintheirrawformandcanstimulatethe

developmentofrelateddownstreamindustriesinthemineral-producingdevelopingcountries.

Thistechnicalnotepresentsasnapshotofthetradedynamicsofthecriticalmineralsand

critical-mineral-basedproductsindifferentprocessingstagesofrechargeablelithium-ion

batteriesforEVs.Thenotehighlightsspecificcharacteristicsofcriticalmineralmarkets,

whichindicatetheareasformorein-depthanalysistosupportmineral-producingdevelopingcountriesinincreasingdomesticvalueadditioninrechargeablebatteryvaluechains.

1UNCTAD(2023).EconomicDevelopmentinAfricaReport2023:ThePotentialofAfricatocapturetechnology-intensiveglobalsupplychains.

2UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(2023).Mineralcommoditysummaries2023.

3InternationalEnergyAssociation(2022).WorldEnergyOutlookSpecialReport:Theroleofcriticalmineralsincleanenergytransition.

4UNCTADbasedondatafromInternationalEnergyAssociationCriticalMineralsDemandDataset.5UNCTAD(2023).WorldInvestmentReport2023:InvestinginSustainableenergyforall.

6UNCTAD(2019).CommoditiesataglanceNo.13:Specialissueomstrategicbatteryrawmaterials.

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

2

2.Dataandmethodology

TheassessmentinthistechnicalnoteusesbilateraltradedatafromUNComtradeusing

theHarmonizedSystem(HS)productclassificationatthe6-digitlevel.ItusesSankeyflow

diagramstovisualizethebilateral(i.e.,country-to-country)tradeflowsoftheselectedcriticalmineralsandminerals-basedproductsatdifferentprocessingstages.

Theprocessingstagesinthisanalysisaredefinedasfollows:(i)theextractionstagewheremineralsunderwentonlyinitialbeneficiation;(ii)theprocessingorrefiningstagewhere

mineralsunderwentachemicalormetallurgicalprocesstobecomerefinedminerals;(iii)themanufacturingstagewheretherefinedmineralsareprocessedtoformbatterymaterials

basedonthoseminerals(e.g.,cathodes,anodes)andincorporatedtoproducebatterycellsandbatterypacks,manyofwhichareforelectricvehicles.

Thediagramspresentedinthisnotehavethefollowingcharacteristics:

a)Eachlineconnectstheexportingcountryontheleftandtheimportingcountryontherightoftheproductconcernedateachprocessingstage;

b)Inthediagramsfocusingontheamounttraded,thewidthofthelinesisproportionalto

thevalueofeachbilateralflowinUnitedStatesdollars.Ontheotherdiagramshighlightingconcentrationofexports,thewidthofthelinesisproportionaloftheshareofthebilateraltradeintotalexports;

c)Thetopthreeexportingcountriesandthetopthreedestinationsoftheirexportsarepresentedinthediagrams;and

d)Usingcountriesas“nodes”,aSankeydiagramatoneprocessingstage(e.g.,theextractionstage)isconnectedtothetradeflowsatthenextprocessingstage(e.g.,theprocessing

stage).

Basedonaliteraturereview,theanalysisidentifiestheHScodesfortheproductsassociatedwitheachprocessingstageoftheselectedcriticalminerals(Table1).UsingtheHSCodes,theanalysisprovidestheworldtradevaluesofproductsateachprocessingstageandtheunit

valueestimatedfromthereportedtradevalueandquantity.7

7

Notethattheunitvalueisprovideduptotheprocessingstage.ThisisduetotheaggregatednatureoftheHS6-digitlevelcodedataforbatterymaterials,cellcomponentsandelectricvehicles.

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

3

Table1.Theproductclassificationofselectedcriticalmineralproductsatdifferentprocessingstages

Lithium

Cobalt

Graphite

Rawminerals

ormineralsthat

underwentonly

initialbeneficiation

Lithiumoresand

concentrates,and

lithiumcarbonate

HSCodes:

253090-Arsenic

sulfides,alunite,

pozzuolana,earth

coloursandother

mineralsubstances,n.e.s.

283691-Lithium

carbonates

Cobaltoresand

concentrates

HSCode:

260500-Cobaltoresandconcentrates

Graphiteflakesand

rawmaterialfor

manufacturingartificial

graphite

HSCodes:

250410-Natural

graphiteinpowderorinflakes

271312-Petroleum

coke,calcined

270810-Pitch

obtainedfromcoaltarorfromothermineraltars

Processedminerals

Lithiumprocessedand/

orrefinedrawmaterials

HSCodes:

282520-Lithiumoxideandhydroxide

282739-Chlorides

(excl.ammonium,

calcium,magnesium,aluminium,nickel,andmercurychloride)

282690-

Fluorosilicates,

fluoroaluminatesand

othercomplexfluorinesalts(excl.sodium

hexafluoroaluminate

“syntheticcryolite”andinorganicororganic

compoundsofmercury)

282619-Fluorides

(excl.ofaluminiumandmercury)

Cobaltprocessedand/

orrefinedrawmaterials

HScodes:

282200-Cobalt

oxidesandhydroxides;commercialcobalt

oxides

810520-Cobaltmattesandotherintermediateproductsofcobalt

metallurgy;unwroughtcobalt;cobaltpowders

Artificialgraphite

HScode:

380110-Artificial

graphite(excl.retort

graphite,retortcarbonandgoodsofartificialgraphite,incl.refractorymaterialsbasedon

artificialgraphite)

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

4

Lithium

Cobalt

Graphite

Batterymaterials

Lithiumcathode

materials

HScodes:

284290-Saltsof

inorganicacidsor

peroxoacids,incl.

aluminosilicates

whetherchemically

defined(excl.of

oxometallicor

peroxometallicacids

andazides,and

inorganicororganic

compoundsofmercury)

284169-Manganites,manganates,and

permanganates

(excl.potassium

permanganate)

382499-Chemical

productsand

preparationsofthe

chemicalorallied

industries,incl.thoseconsistingofmixtures

ofnaturalproducts,

n.e.s.

Cobaltcathode

materials

HScodes:

284190-Salts

ofoxometallicor

peroxometallicacids

(excl.chromates,

dichromates,

peroxochromates,

manganites,

manganates,

permanganates,

molybdates

andtungstates

“wolframamtes”)

285390-Phosphides,whetherchemically

defined(excl.

ferrophosphorus);

inorganiccompounds,incl.distilledor

conductivitywater

andwaterofsimilar

purity,n.e.s.;liquid

air,whetherrare

gaseshavebeen

removed;compressedair;amalgams(excl.

amalgamsofpreciousmetals)

Graphitecathode

materials

HScode:

854519-Electrodesofgraphiteorothercarbon,forelectricalpurposes(excl.thoseusedforfurnaces)

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

5

Batterypacks

Cellcomponentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks

HSCodes:

850790-Plates,separators,andotherpartsofelectricaccumulators,n.e.s.850760-Lithium-ionaccumulators(excl.spent)

Electricvehicles

Electricandplug-inhybridvehicles

HSCodes:

870240-Motorvehiclesforthetransportof>=10persons,incl.driver,withonlyelectricmotorforpropulsion

870360-Motorcarsandothermotorvehiclesprincipallydesignedforthetransportof<10persons,incl.stationwagonsandracingcars,withbothspark-ignitioninternalcombustionreciprocatingpistonengineandelectricmotorasmotorsforpropulsion,capableofbeingchargedbypluggingtoexternalsourceofelectricpower(excl.vehiclesfortravellingonsnowandotherspeciallydesignedvehiclesofsubheading870310)

870370-Motorcarsandothermotorvehiclesprincipallydesignedforthetransportof<10persons,incl.stationwagonsandracingcars,withboth

dieselengineandelectricmotorasmotorsforpropulsion,capableofbeingchargedbypluggingtoexternalsourceofelectricpower(excl.vehicles

fortravellingonsnowandotherspeciallydesignedvehiclesofsubheading870310)

870380-Motorcarsandothermotorvehiclesprincipallydesignedforthetransportof<10persons,incl.stationwagonsandracingcars,withonly

electricmotorforpropulsion(excl.vehiclesfortravellingonsnowandotherspeciallydesignedvehiclesofsubheading870310)

Source:UNCTADbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Theanalysiscomeswithacertaincaveat.First,thediagramsinthenotedonotrepresentthe

actualsupplychainsofrenewablebatteries.Somecountriesmaybesignificantproducersof

acertaincriticalmineralbutmaynotexportthemtotheworld,orsomecountriesmayhavea

domesticsupplychainthroughwhicheverythingisproducedorprocessed.Suchinformation

onlocalproductionisnotincludedintheanalysis.Second,lithium,cobaltandgraphitehave

variousapplicationsapartfromtheiruseinbatteries.Forexample,lithiumcanbeusedinglassandceramicmanufacturing,lubricatinggreases,andpharmaceuticalproductionandmedical

devices.Lithium-ionbatteriesthemselvesareusedinnumerouselectronicdevicesapartfrom

EVs.Thebatterymaterialsandbatterypacksinthediagramsthusincludethosethatareusedinappliancesotherthanelectricandplug-inhybridvehicles.

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

6

3.Tradeflowsofcriticalminerals

1.Lithium

Lithiumisasoftsilverymetalwiththelowestdensityofallmetals.Itdoesnotoccurasa

metalinnaturebutisfoundinhardrockforms,orinbrinedepositsaslithiumchloridesalts.Althoughfoundinmanyrocksandseveralnaturalbrines,commercialexploitationoflithiumisonlypossibleinafewdepositswithhighconcentrationsthatmakeexploitationeconomically

feasible.8Lithiumoreorbrineareusedtomanufacturelithiumhydroxideandlithiumcarbonate,whichareessentialinproducingbatterycathodes.

Figure1illustratesbilateraltradeflowsoflithiumandlithium-basedproductsoftheyear

2022,highlightingthemajorbilateraltradeflowsinUnitedStatesdollarsineachprocessingstage.Thegraphillustratesthehighvaluesoftradeoftherawmineralandalsoofthecell

componentsandbatterypacks.Figure2showsthesametradeflowsbutthewidthsoftheseflowsrepresenttheshareofthebilateraltradeintotalexportsineachprocessingstage.Thegraphhighlightstheconcentrationoftradeintheupstreampartofthevaluechain.

8UNCTAD(2019).CommoditiesataglanceNo.13:Specialissueomstrategicbatteryrawmaterials.

Figure1.LithiumtradeflowsalongtheEVvaluechain,2022(UnitedStatesdollars)

Source:UNCTADsecretariatcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstradebetweencountriesintermsofexportsandimports,butitdoesnotprovideinformationonlocalproductionwithinindividualcountries.Thetradedataareasreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:253090,283691(Lithiumoresandconcentrates,andlithiumcarbonate);282520,282739;282690;282619(processedand/orrefinedraw

materials);284290,284169,382499(lithiumcathodematerials);850790,850760(Cellcomponentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks;and870240,870360,870370,870380(Electricandplug-inhybridvehicles).Unitvalueiscalculatedfromthereportedtradevalueandquantity.

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

7

Figure2.ShareoflithiumtradeflowtototalexportvaluealongtheEVvaluechain,2022(percentageoftotalexports)

Source:UNCTADsecretariatcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstheshareoftradetototalexportvalueateachstageofthevaluechain.Thisisbasedontradedata

asreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:253090,283691(Lithiumoresandconcentrates,andlithiumcarbonate);

282520,282739;282690;282619(processedand/orrefinedrawmaterials);284290,284169,382499(lithiumcathodematerials);850790,850760(Cellcomponentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks;and870240,870360,870370,870380(Electricandplug-in

hybridvehicles).Thefirstnoderepresentstheshareofexportsofthemainexportingcountriesofrawmaterial.

Attheextractionstage,AustraliaandChileaccountformorethan79percentoflithiumoreandbrineexports,andChinaimportsover73percentoflithiumtradedintheworld.Australia,the

world’slargestexporterofspodumene(lithiumore),hadrelativelylittlelithiumhydroxiderefiningcapacityin2022.Thecountryisplanningtoreachabout10percentofgloballithiumrefining

capacityby2024.9Chile,thelargestexporteroflithiumbrine,hasarefiningcapacityandisa

majorexporteroflithiumhydroxide.LithiumminingisdominatedbyChilean,Chinese,United

StatesandAustralianfirms,whichcontrolacombined53percentofgloballithiumproduction.10

ThediagramsshowthatChina,RepublicofKorea,Japan,andotherdevelopedcountriesenjoythemajorityoflithiumrefiningcapacity.However,Argentina,whichaccountsfor10percent

oflithiumprocessingintheworld,11isnotincludedinthediagrambecauseitexportsonlyanegligibleamountofrefinedlithium.

9

.au/sites/default/files/minisite/static/ba3c15bd-3747-4346-a328-6b5a43672abf/resources-and

-

energy-quarterly-september-2022/documents/Resources-and-Energy-Quarterly-September-2022.pdf

10

/statistics/606799/distribution-of-world-lithiuim-mineral-production-by-producer/

11TheshareofArgentinainlithiumprocessingissourcedfromtheestimatesinIRENA(2023)“

Geopoliticsofenergytransition:

Criticalminerals

”.

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

8

ThediagramsalsohighlightthatChina,whichaccountsfor67percentofglobalexportsof

lithiumoxideandhydroxideattheprocessingstage,seemstokeeplithium-basedbattery

materialsforthedomesticmanufacturingofbatterypacks.WhileChina’sexportofbattery

materialstotheworldissmall,itimportstheseproductsfromtheRepublicofKoreaandthe

UnitedStates.ChinathenexportsbatterypackstocountriesthataremajorexportersofEVs,

includingtheUnitedStatesandGermany.Chinaaccountedfor46percentoftheglobalexportsofbatterypacksin2022.China’sdomesticvalueadditioninthebatteryvaluechainissignificant:theestimatedunitvalueincreasesfrom$6.4perkilogramforlithiumhydroxideto$150fora

batterypack.12

Polandwasthesecondlargestexporterofbatterypacksin2022butdoesnothavesignificantminingcapacityforlithium-ionbatterymaterials,insteadobtainingthesematerialsthrough

trade.13PolandimportslithiumoxideandhydroxidemainlyfromtheUnitedStates(68percent)andChina(18percent),andLithiumcathodematerialsmostlyfromChina(55percent)and

Germany(17percent).

2.Cobalt

Cobaltacriticalcomponentintheproductionofrechargeablebatteryelectrodesasithelpsmaintainthermalstability-asignificantsafetyissue.Italsoenablesbatteriestostoreand

transfermoreenergy.Cobaltismainlyminedasabyproductofnickelandcopperfrombothundergroundandsurfacemining.Theoreisrefinedusingbothpyrometallurgicalandhydro-metallurgicaltechniquestoobtainintermediateproductssuchascobalthydroxide,cobaltmetals,andotherchemicals.Thisisfurtherrefinedtocobaltsulphate,whichisusedin

manufacturingcathodesforbatteries,superalloys,andmagnets.

Figure3illustratescobalttradedynamicsinthelithium-ionbatteryvaluechainfocusingonthevaluetradedbythetopexportersineachprocessingstage.Figure4showsthesametrade

flowsbutrepresentsthesharestraded.Asinthecaseoflithiumtradeflows,thediagrams

illustratethehighvaluestradedinthedownstreamsegmentsofthevaluechain(Figure3)andthehighconcentrationoftradeintheupstreamstages(Figure4).

12TheunitpriceforabatterypackisbasedontheestimatedpriceinUnitedStatesdollarperkilowatthour,byStatista“

Lithium-ionbatterypriceworldwidefrom2013to2022

”.

13Althoughitisnotamongthetopthreedestinationsofthetopexportersintheworldoflithium-ionbatterymaterials,thus,thesetradeflowsarenotshowninFigure1.

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

9

Figure3.Cobalttradeflowsalongtheelectricvehiclevaluechain,2022(UnitedStatesdollars)

Source:UNCTADcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstradebetweencountriesintermsofexportsandimports,butitdoesnotprovideinformationaboutlocalproductionwithinindividualcountries.Thetradedataareasreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:260500(cobalt

oresandconcentrates);282200,810520(processedand/orrefinedrawmaterials);284190,285390(cobaltcathodematerials);and850790,850760(cellcomponentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks);and870240,870360,870370,870380(Electricand

plug-inhybridvehicles).Unitvalueiscalculatedfromthereportedtradevalueandquantity.Thefocusofthisnoteisthetrade

flowsofselectcriticalmineralsalongtheelectricvehiclevaluechain,thusthelasttwostagesinthefigure(correspondingtocellcomponentsandEVs)arethesameasinFigure1.

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

10

Figure4.ShareofcobalttradeflowtototalexportvaluealongtheEVvaluechain,2022(percentageoftotalexports)

Source:UNCTADsecretariatcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstheshareoftradetototalexportvalueateachstageofthevaluechain.Thisisbasedontradedata

asreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:260500(cobaltoresandconcentrates);282200,810520(processedand/orrefinedrawmaterials);284190,285390(cobaltcathodematerials);and850790,850760(cellcomponentsofbatteriesand

batterypacks);and870240,870360,870370,870380(Electricandplug-inhybridvehicles).Thefirstnoderepresentstheshareofexportsgoingtothemainexportingcountriesofrawmaterial.

In2022,thecobaltoremarketwasvaluedatUS$191million,whilecobalthydroxidereachedUS$9.3billion.Thehighpriceofcobaltcomparedtotheothercriticalmineralsislargely

attributedtothegeographicalconcentrationofitssupply.Cobaltminingisdominatedbyafewmajorcompanies,withthetopfivealoneaccountingfor48percentofglobalcobaltproduction.14

Onebilateraltraderelationdominatestherefiningstage:theDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,whichproducesabout70percentofcobaltoreworldwide,accountedfor64percentofthe

globalcobalthydroxideexportsin2022,ofwhich96percentwasdirectedtoChina.This

suggestssignificantvalueadditiontakingplacewithintheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo.Thecountry’sprocessingandrefiningactivitiessignificantlyincreasedtheunitpriceofcobaltfromUS$5.8perkilogramattheextractionstagetoUS$16.2perkilogramattheprocessing/refiningstage.15

14UNCTADcalculationsbasedondatafromS&PGlobalMarketIntelligence.

15UNCTADcalculationsbasedonComtrade2022data.

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

11

Thetradeinthemanufacturingstageisdominatedbycountriesthataremembersofthe

OrganizationofEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD).NocountryfromAfricaor

LatinAmericaisamajorparticipantintradeofmanufacturingcathodes16orbatterymaterials.

Atthemanufacturingstage,Chinaaccountsforabout49percentoftheexportsofcobalt-

basedbatterymaterial(cobaltcathode),instarkcontrasttolithium-basedbatterymaterialwhichChinaexportednegligibly.TheRepublicofKoreaisthesecondlargestexporterofcobalt-basedbatterymaterials,with31percentofglobalexports,followedbyJapanwith9percent.PolandisthemainimporterofcathodematerialsfromtheRepublicofKoreaandJapan,andthethird

largestimporterfromChina.

3.Graphite

Graphiteisthemostusedanodematerialinlithium-ionbatterymanufacturingbecauseitprovidesstability,electricalconductivity,andlightweightproperties,allofwhichenhancethebattery’soverallperformanceandenergystoragecapacity.Graphiteisminedfrom

ores,butdifferentfromothermineralscriticalfortheenergytransition,graphitecanalsobe

manufacturedfromintensiveheattreatmentofpetroleumcoke,coal-tarpitch,oroil,which

makesproductionmorecarbonintensive.17Bothtypesofgraphiteareusedinmanufacturinganodesinbatterydevices.However,naturalgraphitehasanadvantageoversyntheticgraphitebecausepurifiednaturalflakegraphiteexhibitsamuchhighercrystallinestructureandis,

therefore,moreelectricallyandthermallyconductive.18Inaddition,naturalgraphiteismorecost-effectiveandhasalowercarbonfootprint.However,syntheticanodesperformbetterinelectrolytecompatibility,fastchargeturnaroundandbatterylongevity.19

Figure5representstradepatternsofgraphitealongtheelectricvehiclevaluechain

highlightingthevalueineachbilateraltradeflow.Figure6showsthesametradeflowsbutthewidthsoftheseflowsrepresenttheshareoftradeintotalexportsineachprocessingstage.

16Lithium-ionbatteriesusevarioustypesofcathodes,withthemostpredominantbeingthenickel-manganese-cobalt(NMC)cathode.Toproducethecathode,theselectedprecursormaterials(inthiscasenickel,manganeseandcobalt)aremixedtogetherandcombinedwithlithium.Thisisheatedandfurthertreatedtoproducethecathode.

17

/article/esg-of-graphite-how-do-synthetic-graphite-and-natural-graphite-compare

18

/synthetic-vs-natural-graphite#

19

/insights/synthetic-versus-natural-graphite-debate/

Technicalnoteoncriticalminerals

12

Figure5.Graphitetradeflowsalongtheelectricvehiclevaluechain,2022(UnitedStatesdollars)

Source:UNCTADcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstradebetweencountriesintermsofexportsandimports,butitdoesnotprovideinformationaboutlocalproductionwithinindividualcountries.Thetradedataareasreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:250410(graphiteflakes)271312,270810,(rawmaterialformanufacturingartificialgraphite);HS380110(artificialgraphite),HS854519(graphitecathodematerials);HS850790,HS850760(cellcomponentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks);and870240,870360,870370,

870380(Electricandplug-inhybridvehicles).Unitvalueiscalculatedfromthereportedtradevalueandquantity.Thefocusofthisnoteisthetradeflowsofselectcriticalmineralsalongtheelectricvehiclevaluechain,thusthelasttwostagesinthefigure(correspondingtocellcomponentsandEVs)arethesameasinFigures1and2.

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

13

Figure6.ShareofgraphitetradeflowtototalexportvaluealongtheEVvaluechain,2022(percentageoftotalexports)

Source:UNCTADsecretariatcalculationsbasedondatafromUNComtrade.

Note:Thefigureshowstheshareoftradetototalexportvalueateachstageofthevaluechain.Thisisbasedontradedataasreportedinthefollowing6-digitlevelHSCodes:250410(graphiteflakes)271312,270810,(rawmaterialformanufacturingartificialgraphite);HS380110(artificialgraphite),HS854519(graphitecathodematerials);HS850790,HS850760(cell

componentsofbatteriesandbatterypacks);and870240,870360,870370,870380(Electricandplug-inhybridvehicles).Thefirstnoderepresentstheshareofexportsgoingtothemainexportingcountriesofrawmaterial.

Brazil,China,andTürkiyeaccountfor65percentofworldreservesofgraphite.Chinaistheleadinggraphiteproducer,contributing65percentofglobalproduction.20Regardingexports,Chinaistheleaderwith53percentofnaturalgraphiteexports,followedbyMozambique(13percent)andMadagascar(12percent).Incontrast,th